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1811  Jan 6, Charles Sumner (d.1874), leading anti-slavery senator and author, was born in Boston. He was active in the movement to outlaw war, opposed the Mexican War and was a founder in 1848 of the Free-Soil party. A senator from Massachusetts, Sumner was an ardent abolitionist and helped organize the Republican party. In c1867 Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner popularized the name Alaska for the territory that had been known as Russian America in a famous Senate speech supporting the treaty to purchase Russian America: "There is the National flag. He must be cold, indeed, who can look upon its folds rippling in the breeze without pride of country. If in a foreign land, the flag is companionship, and country itself, with all its endearments."
 (HNQ, 9/28/98)(AP, 6/14/97)(HNQ, 11/17/98)

1811  Jan 10, An uprising of over 400 slaves was put down in New Orleans. Sixty-six blacks were killed and their heads were strung up along the roads of the city.
 (HN, 1/10/99)

1811  Jan 15, In a secret session, Congress planned to annex Spanish East Florida.
 (HN, 1/15/99)

1811  Feb 2, Russian settlers established Ft. Ross trading post in northern California. Fort Ross was settled by peg-legged Ivan Kuzkov (Kuskov) in Sonoma County (1912). It was designed as a base for fur hunters and a warm weather supplier for the Russian colonies in Alaska. The colonists included 25 Russians and over 80 Aleut Indians from the islands of western Alaska. Kuskov managed the settlement until 1821.
 (SFEC, 3/23/97,  p.T5)(SFEC, 9/20/98, Z1 p.4)(SFC, 6/15/01, WBb p.7)(MC, 2/2/02)

1811  Feb 3, Horace Greeley (d.1872), abolitionist newspaper editor, was born in Amherst, New Hampshire. He popularized the phrase "Go west, young man." Greeley, who began his journalism career at The New Yorker, founded The New York Tribune in 1841 with support from powerful political friends. Under Greeley's direction, The Tribune took a strong stand against slavery, the South and slave owners in the years leading up to the Civil War. The Tribune and Greeley also crusaded against liquor, gambling, prostitution and capital punishment. One of the founders of the Republican Party, Greeley was also an eccentric who dabbled in many of the fads of his day. The phrase was spoken to Josiah Grinell, who went west to Iowa, became a Congregational minister and founded Grinell College from which Robert Noyce, developer of the microchip and founder of Intel, graduated. "There is no bigotry like that of ‘free thought’ run to seed."
 (HNPD, 2/3/99)(WSJ, 10/26/00, p.W12)(AP, 7/21/98)

1811  Feb 11, Pres. Madison prohibited trade with Britain for 3rd time in 4 years.
 (MC, 2/11/02)

1811  Mar 1, In Egypt the Ottoman viceroy Muhammad Ali Pasha massacred the Mameluke leaders of Egypt for plotting against him. He had invited them to a banquet at the citadel of Cairo.
 (PCh, 1992, p.373)(SC, 3/1/02)

1811  Mar 11, Urbain Jean Joseph le Verrier, co-discoverer (Neptune), was born.
 (MC, 3/12/02)
1811  Mar 11, Ned Ludd led a group of workers in a wild protest against mechanization. Members of the organized bands of craftsmen who rioted against automation in 19th century England were known as Luddites and also "Ludds." The movement, reputedly named after Ned Ludd, began near Nottingham as craftsman destroyed textile machinery that was eliminating their jobs. By the following year, Luddites were active in Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Lancashire and Leicestershire. Although the Luddites opposed violence towards people (a position which allowed for a modicum of public support), government crackdowns included mass shootings, hangings and deportation to the colonies. The movement effectively died in 1813 apart from a brief resurgence of Luddite sentiment in 1816 following the end of the Napoleonic Wars.
 (HN, 3/11/01)(HNQ, 5/14/01)

1811  Mar 20, Napoleon II, the Duke of Reichstadt, was born. He was the son of Napoleon Bonaparte.
 (HN, 3/20/99)

1811  Mar 31, Robert Wilhelm Eberhard von Bunsen, German inventor of the Bunsen burner, was born.
 (HN, 3/31/99)

1811  Apr 5, Robert Raikes, founder of Sunday Schools, died.
 (MC, 4/5/02)

1811  Apr 12, First U.S. colonists on Pacific coast arrived at Cape Disappointment, Washington.
 (HN, 4/12/98)(MC, 4/12/02)

1811  May 11, Chang and Eng Bunker, Chinese Siamese twins, were born.
 (MC, 5/11/02)

1811  Jun 14, Harriet Beecher Stowe (d.1896), American writer and author of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," was born in Litchfield, Conn. The book showed the horrors of slavery and President Abraham Lincoln joked she had started the American Civil War.
 (AHD, p.1272)(HN, 6/14/99)

1811  Jul 5, Venezuela became the first South American country to declare independence from Spain.
 (HFA, ‘96, p.34)(AP, 7/5/97)

1811  Jul 18, William Makepeace Thackeray (d.1863), English novelist and satirist, was born. His books were published as monthly serials. "Next to excellence is the appreciation of it."
 (HN, 7/18/98)(AP, 10/28/00)

1811  Aug 14, Paraguay declared independence from Spain.
 (PC, 1992, p.373)

1811  Aug 31, Théophile Gautier, French poet, novelist and author of "Art for Art’s Sake," was born.
 (HN, 8/31/98)

1811  Sep 3, John Humphrey Noyes was born in Vermont. He founded the Oneida Community (Perfectionists) in 1848.
 (MC, 9/3/01)(SSFC, 12/29/02, p.A6)

1811  Oct 11, The first steam-powered ferryboat, the Juliana, was put into operation between New York City and Hoboken, N.J.
 (AP, 10/11/97)

1811  Oct 22, Franz Liszt, piano virtuoso, was born near Sopron, Hungary. He was the son of a steward of the Esterhazy family.
 (Hem., 6/98, p.128)(HN, 10/22/00)

1811  Oct 27, Isaac Merrit Singer, inventor of a practical home sewing machine, was born.
 (HN, 10/27/98)(MC, 10/27/01)

1811  Oct 29, The 1st Ohio River steamboat left Pittsburgh for New Orleans.
 (MC, 10/29/01)

1811  Nov 2, Battle of Tippecanoe: Gen William Henry Harrison routed Indians. [see Nov 7]
 (MC, 11/2/01)

1811  Nov 5, El Salvador fought its 1st battle against Spain for independence.
 (MC, 11/5/01)

1811  Nov 7, Gen. William Henry Harrison won a battle against the Shawnee Indians at the Battle of Tippecanoe in the Indiana territory. Tenskwatawa, the brother of Shawnee leader Tecumseh, was engaged in the Battle of the Wabash, aka Battle of Tippecanoe, in spite of his brother’s strict admonition to avoid it. The battle near the Tippecanoe River with the regular and militia forces of Indiana Territory Governor William Henry Harrison, took place while Tecumseh was out of the area seeking support for a united Indian movement. The battle, which was a nominal victory for Harrison’s forces, effectively put an end to Tecumseh’s dream of a pan-Indian confederation. Harrison’s leadership in the battle also provided a useful campaign slogan for his presidential bid in 1840.
 (HFA, ‘96, p.46)(HNQ, 5/28/98)(HN, 11/7/98)

1811  Nov 16, John Bright, British Victorian radical, was born. He founded the Anti-Corn Law League.
 (HN, 11/16/99)

1811  Nov 16, An earthquake in Missouri caused the Mississippi River to flow backwards. [see Dec 15-16]
 (MC, 11/16/01)

1811  Nov 21, Heinrich W. von Kleist (34), German playwright, died.
 (MC, 11/21/01)

1811  Nov 29, Wendell Phillips, women's suffrage, antislavery, prison reformer, was born.
 (MC, 11/29/01)

1811  Dec 15-16, An 8.0 earthquake struck the central US on the Mississippi River. It was centered at New Madrid, Missouri, and reversed the course of the Mississippi for a while. Aftershocks continued into 1812. In 1976 James Penick Jr. authored "The New Madrid Earthquakes of 1811-1812." Three intraplate tremblers hit New Madrid.
 (HC, 6/7/98)(ON, 10/99, p.5,6)(SFC, 2/24/01, p.A10)(WSJ, 9/13/01, p.B11)

1811  The Jane Austen book "Sense and Sensibility" was published.
 (SFEC,11/9/97, BR p.4)

1811  The Bowdoin College Museum of Art in Brunswick was begun as a bequest from James Bowdoin III, son of a college benefactor.
 (WSJ, 7/21/00, p.W2)

1811  In the US politics killed the Bank of the United States established by Hamilton as a central bank and a mechanism for government borrowing.
 (WSJ, 3/12/97, p.A18)

1811  Francis Cabot Lowell, an American industrialist, moved to England and gathered information on mill details. He returned to the US and started the textile industry in New England and the Massachusetts mill town of his name.
 (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50)

1811  Fanny Burney (1752-1840), English writer, underwent a mastectomy without anesthesia. In 2001 Claire Harman authored the biography: "Fanny Burney."
 (SSFC, 12/23/01, p.M5)

1811  Avogadro proposed that the ultimate particles of even elemental gases may not be atoms but instead molecules made up of combinations of atoms. He also proposed that equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules.
 (V.D.-H.K.p.324)

1811  Gas hydrates were first discovered but their molecular structure was not understood until the late 20th century. They are crystals of water that look like ice but contain a molecule of free-floating gas in a pentagonally-linked cage.
 (NH, 5/97, p.28)

1811  A great comet was observed.
 (NH, 12/96, p.69)

1811  William Burchell, botanist for the East India Company, set off into the bush for Hottentot country after his girlfriend abandoned him just before marriage. He stayed 4 years and is listed as the man who invented the working safari.
 (SFC, 8/5/00, p.B4)

1811  In Britain the Dulwich Picture Gallery opened at Dulwich College. It contained an art collection gathered by Noel Desenfans and Francis Bourgeois, who had put it together for the Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski, king of Poland, before he was forced to abdicate.
 (WSJ, 2/15/00, p.A24)

1811  In England George Augustus Frederick, Prince of Wales became prince regent after his father, George III, slipped permanently into dementia. In 1999 Saul David published "The Prince of Pleasure: The Prince of Wales and the Making of the Regency."
 (WSJ, 3/26/99, p.W10)

1811  British Foreign Secretary Lord Wellesley, older brother of the Duke of Wellington, wrote that the Peninsula War diverted French resources and that the time was ripe to strike against Napoleon.
 (WSJ, 7/10/96, p.A16)

1811  In England John Williams, the Highway Hacker, murdered 2 whole families in the Docklands section of London. He committed suicide while awaiting trial. A crowd stole his body and drove a stake through his heart and buried him in a lime pit off Cannon St.
 (SFEC, 10/18/98, p.T9)

1811  The Mamelukes remained a powerful influence in Egypt until they were massacred or dispersed by Mehemet Ali.
 (WUD, 1994, p.869)
1811  The Turks dispatched Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali to overthrow the Wahabis and reinstate Ottoman sovereignty in Arabia.
 (NW, 9/30/02, p.33)

1811  Napoleon Bonaparte gave to his wife, Empress Marie Louise, a tiara with 950 diamonds (700 carats). The original emeralds were later replaced with Persian turquoise. Now part of the Smithsonian Inst. and bequeathed by Marjorie Merriweather Post.
 (Postcard , Nat’l Mus. Nat. Hist.,1995)

1811-1812 Marie Dorion, a 21-year-old Iowa Indian, was the only woman to accompany the 1811-12 overland expedition to the Pacific Northwest led by Wilson Price Hunt. Her husband, Pierre Dorion was hired as an interpreter. Marie would endure many hardships on the expedition to establish a fur trading post at the mouth of the Columbia River.
 (HNQ, 12/9/00)

1811-1812 The Scott expedition to the South Pole culminated in tragedy.
 (WSJ, 2/10/95), p.A-7)

1811-1812 In Mexico during the war for independence the crime rate rose to double digits for two years in a row.
 (SFEC, 1/26/97, p.A14)

1811-1816 The Luddite bands of workman destroyed manufacturing machinery in England under the belief that their use diminished employment. They were named after Ned Ludd, the 18th cent. Leicestershire worker who originated the idea. Opponents of technology harken back to the English weavers who broke textile machinery, apparently at the urging of their leader, Ned Ludd. [see May 3, 1811]
 (WUD, 1994, p.852)(WSJ, 4/12/96, p.B-1)

1811-1857 Jacob Whitman Bailey, teacher of chemistry, mineralogy and geology at West Point. He was a pioneer of American science and is noted for his microscopical studies.
 (OAPOC-TH, p.71)

1811-1865 Elisha Graves Otis, a Vermont native, was a master mechanic working at a bedstead factory in Yonkers, N.Y., when he built a hoisting machine with two sets of metal teeth at the car’s sides. If the lifting rope broke, the teeth would lock into place, preventing the car from falling. Otis ever realized the potential of his invention. His sons built the Otis Elevator Company, enabling the skylines of cities throughout the world to be transformed with skyscrapers.
 (HNQ, 5/30/98)

1811-1882 Louis Blanc, French utopian socialist, proposed the social ideal of "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs." The nineteenth-century writer and thinker had a profound influence on radical thought.
 (HNQ, 4/12/99)

1811-1879 George Caleb Bingham. American painter. He painted "Fur Traders on the Missouri."
 (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.149)

1811-1881 Prof. Ferdinand Neselman of Koenigsburg Univ. first referred to the Aistians as the Balts in his book "The Language of the Prussians According to its Surviving Fragments."
 (DrEE, 10/12/96, p.2)

1811-1882 Henry James, US philosopher and author. He was the father of William and Henry.
 (WUD, 1994, p.762)

1811-1884 Judah P. Benjamin, born a British subject in the Virgin Islands in 1811, went on to become the first professed Jew elected to U.S. Senate, from the state of Louisiana in 1852. He was brought to South Carolina as a child. After attending Yale (1825--7) he settled in New Orleans. He served Louisiana in the US Senate (Whig, 1853--9; Democrat, 1859--61). He was noted for his pro-slavery speeches in the Senate. Favoring secession, he served the Confederacy as attorney general (1861) and then as secretary of war (1861--2). He was blamed for the Confederate army's lack of equipment, but Jefferson Davis promoted him to secretary of state (1862--5). Late in the war he urged the recruitment of slaves into the Confederate Army. With the collapse of the Confederacy he fled to the West Indies and then to England (1866), where he made a brilliant new career as a British barrister, especially in appeal cases. He wrote the Treatise on the Law of Sale of Personal Property (1868), which at once became the standard in the field. In 1872, he became a counsel to the queen. Benjamin died in Paris.
 (HNQ, 12/8/98)

1811-1884 Wendell Phillips, American abolitionist:  "Responsibility educates."
 (AP, 5/29/00)

1812  Jan 23, A 7.8 earthquake shook New Madrid, Missouri.
 (MC, 1/23/02)

1812  Feb 5, Franz Schneider (74), composer, died.
 (MC, 2/5/02)

1812  Feb 6, Charles Dickens, English writer, was born (d.1870) in Portsmouth, England. In his novel "Dombey & Son," Dickens confronted the subject of money, and its use as a measure of success. His work also included "Master Humphrey’s Clock," published in instalments like most of his novels. The closing line of "A Christmas Carol,": "And so, as Tiny Tim observed, God Bless Us, Every One!" [see Feb 7]
 (HFA, ‘96, p.22)(V.D.-H.K.p.254)(SFC, 6/17/97, p.E3)(AP, 12/19/98)

1812  Feb 7, Charles Dickens, English novelist, was born in Portsmouth, England. His stories reflected life in Victorian England. Some of his more famous novels include "Oliver Twist," "A Christmas Carol" and "A Tale of Two Cities." [see Feb 6]
 (HFA, '96, p.24)(AP, 2/7/97)(HN, 2/7/99)
1812  Feb 7, Lord Byron made his maiden speech in House of Lords.
 (MC, 2/7/02)

1812  Feb 9, Franz Anton Hoffmeister (57), composer, died.
 (MC, 2/9/02)

1812  Feb 11, Alexander Hamilton Stephens (d.1883), Vice Pres (Confederacy), was born near Crawfordville, Georgia. Stephens, who served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1843 to 1859, was a delegate at the Montgomery meeting that formed a new union of the seceded states. He was elected vice president to Jefferson Davis on February 9, 1861. Stephens was later elected governor of Georgia in 1882 but died after serving just a few months.
 (HNQ, 5/24/98)(MC, 2/11/02)
1812  Feb 11, Massachusetts Gov. Elbridge Gerry signed a re-districting law that favored his party—giving rise to the term "gerrymandering."
 (AP, 2/11/97)

1812  Feb 16, Henry Wilson, 18th U.S. Vice President (Grant 1873-1875), was born.
 (HN, 2/16/98)

1812  Mar 3, US Congress passed its 1st foreign aid bill providing aid to Venezuela earthquake victims.
 (SC, 3/3/02)

1812  Mar 6, Aaron Lufkin Dennison, father of American watch making, was born.
 (MC, 3/6/02)

1812  Mar 9, Swedish Pomerania was seized by Napoleon.
 (HN, 3/9/98)

1812  Mar 11, Citizenship was granted to Prussian Jews.
 (MC, 3/12/02)

1812  Mar 14, The US Congress authorized war bonds to finance War of 1812.
 (MC, 3/14/02)

1812  Mar 19, Spanish Cortes passed a liberal constitution under a hereditary monarch.
 (AP, 3/19/03)

1812  Mar 26, Earthquake destroyed 90% of Caracas; about 20,000 died.
 (SS, 3/26/02)(PCh, 1992, p.376)

1812  Apr 4, The territory of Orleans became the 18th state and later became known as Louisiana.
 (HN, 4/4/99)

1812  Apr 15, Pierre-Etienne-Theodore Rousseau, painter, was born.
 (MC, 4/15/02)

1812  Apr 20, George Clinton (73), the 4th vice president of the United States, died in Washington, becoming the first vice president to die while in office.
 (AP, 4/20/97)

1812  Apr 26, Alfred Krupp, German arms merchant, was born.
 (HN, 4/26/98)

1812  Apr 27, Friedrich von Flotow, composer (Martha), was born.
 (MC, 4/27/02)

1812  Apr 30, Louisiana became the 18th state.
 (AP, 4/30/97)(HN, 4/30/98)

1812  May 7, Poet Robert Browning was born in London. His works include "The Piper of Hamelin" and "The Ring and the Book."
 (AP, 5/7/97)(HN, 5/7/99)

1812  May 11, The Waltz was introduced into English ballrooms. Most observers considered it disgusting and immoral.
 (MC, 5/11/02)
1812  May 11, British prime Minster Spencer Perceval was shot by a bankrupt banker in the lobby of the House of Commons.
 (HN, 5/11/99)

1812  May 13, Johann Matthias Sperger (62), composer, died.
 (MC, 5/13/02)

1812  May 25, A series of coal mine explosions took place around the Felling Colliery in Durhamshire, England. 92 miners were killed. This prompted local clergymen to organize the Society for Preventing Accidents in Coal Mines.
 (ON, 12/01, p.6)

1812  May, William Moorcroft, East India Co. head of 5,000 acre horse farm at Pusa, India, departed for Tibet in search of horses to improve his stock.
 (ON, 1/02, p.3)

1812  Jun 4, The Louisiana Territory was renamed the Missouri Territory.
 (AP, 6/4/97)

1812  Jun 12, Napoleon Bonaparte and his French army invaded Russia.
 (HN, 6/12/99)

1812  Jun 18, The War of 1812 began as the United States declared war against Great Britain. The term "war hawk" was first used by John Randolph in reference to those Republicans who were pro-war in the years leading up to the War of 1812. These new types of Republicans, who espoused nationalism and expansionism, included Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Most of them came from the agrarian areas of the South and West.
 (HFA, ‘96, p.32)(AP, 6/18/97)(HN, 6/18/98)(HNQ, 5/13/99)
1812  Jun 18, Ivan Goncharov, Russian novelist of the Russian realism school of thought, was born. He is best known for his book "Oblomov."
 (HN, 6/18/99)

1812  Jun 22, A pro-war mob destroyed Hanson's newspaper office, four days after America’s declaration of war against Great Britain. Revered American Revolutionary cavalry hero Henry "Light-Horse Harry" Lee was nearly beaten to death by a mob in Baltimore. Lee came to the aide of an anti-war newspaper publisher in Baltimore, Alexander Contee Hanson, defending his right to freedom of speech. When Hanson returned to Baltimore five weeks later to resume publication, his office was again besieged by vigilantes. After a tense standoff through the night of July 27, Hanson and his supporters, including Lee, were taken to a local jail. Later the mob stormed the jail, severely beating those being held. Lee, father of Robert E. Lee, never fully recovered from injuries sustained in the beating and died in 1818.
 (HNQ, 9/17/99)

1812  Jun 23, The church at Mission San Juan Bautista in California was dedicated.
 (SJSVB, 6/24/96, p.41)

1812  Jun 24, Napoleon crossed the Nieman River [in Lithuania] and invaded Russia.
 (HN, 6/24/98)

1812  Jun 30, William Moorcroft, East India Co. head of 5,000 acre horse farm at Pusa, India, arrived in Tibet. He found no horses to improve his stock but learned of Russian presence.
 (ON, 1/02, p.3)

1812  Jul 12, United States forces led by General William Hull entered Canada during the War of 1812 against Britain. However, Hull retreated shortly thereafter to Detroit. Madison had called for 50,000 volunteers to invade Canada but only 5,000 signed up.
 (AP, 7/12/99)(ON, 9/02, p.2)

1812  Jul 18, Great Britain signed the Treaty of Orebro, making peace with Russia and Sweden.
 (HN, 7/18/98)

1812  Jul 22, English troops under the Duke of Wellington defeated the French at the Battle of Salamanca in Spain.
 (AP, 7/22/97)(HN, 7/22/98)

1812  Jul, British troops under the Duke of Wellington pillaged the Spanish town of Badajos. This prompted Wellington to call his troops "the scum of the earth."
 (WSJ, 1/6/95, A-10)

1812  Aug 12, British commander the Duke of Wellington occupied Madrid, Spain, forcing out Joseph Bonaparte.
 (HN, 8/12/98)

1812  Aug 16, American General William Hull surrendered Detroit without resistance to a smaller British and Indian forces under General Isaac Brock.
 (AP, 8/16/97)(HN, 8/16/98)

1812  Aug 17, Napoleon Bonaparte’s army defeated the Russians at the Battle of Smolensk during the Russian retreat to Moscow.
 (HN, 8/17/98)

1812  Aug 18, Returning from a cruise into Canadian waters Captain Isaac Hull’s USS Constitution of the fledgling U.S. Navy encountered British Captain Richard Dacre’s HMS Guerriere about 750 miles out of Boston. After a frenzied 55-minute battle that left 101 dead, Guerriere rolled helplessly in the water, smashed beyond salvage. Dacre struck his colors and surrendered to Hull’s boarding party. In contrast, Constitution suffered little damage and only 14 casualties. The fight’s outcome shocked the British Admiralty while it heartened America through the dark days of the War of 1812.
 (HNPD, 8/18/98)

1812  Aug 19, The USS Constitution—also known as Old Ironsides—got its name when it defeated the British warship Guerriere off Nova Scotia in a slugfest of broadsides, when cannonballs were said to have bounced off her sides. The USS Constitution won more than 30 battles against the Barbary pirates off Africa’s coast in the War of 1812.
 (SFEC, 7/13/97, Par p.14)(AP, 8/19/97)

1812  Sep 7, On the road to Moscow, Napoleon won a costly victory over the Russians under Kutuzov at Borodino.
 (HN, 9/7/98)(MC, 9/7/01)

1812  Sep 12, Richard March Hoe was born. He built the first successful rotary printing press.
 (HN, 9/12/00)

1812  Sep 14, Napoleon's invasion of Russia reached its climax as his Grande Armee entered Moscow--only to find the enemy capital deserted and burning, set afire by the few Russians who remained. The fires were extinguished by Sep 19.
 (HN, 9/14/98)(MC, 9/14/01)

1812  Sep 18, A fire in Moscow (set by Napoleon's troops) destroyed 90% of houses and 1,000 churches. [see Sep 14]
  (MC, 9/18/01)
 
1812  Sep, In France as Napoleon’s army proceeded to invade Russia it numbered 442,000 troops. In Sept. it reached Moscow with 100,000 men. The remains of the Grandee Armee struggled out of Russia in 1813 with 10,000 men. A map drawn by Charles Joseph Minard plots six variables to depict the march over time: the size of the army, its location on a 2-dimensional surface, the direction of the army’s movement, and temperatures on various days during the retreat from Moscow. In 1970 Curtis Cate published the book: "The War of the Two Emperors."
 (Adv. E. Tufte, 5/18/96, p.4)(SFEC, 6/15/97, Z1 p.3)

1812  Sep, William Moorcroft, East India Co. head of 5,000 acre horse farm at Pusa, India, was arrested in Nepal while returning from Tibet to India. They were released after 17 days in captivity.
 (ON, 1/02, p.3)

1812  Sep-Oct, Moscow was burned under the brief occupation by Napoleon. After the burning the Neglinnaya River was confined to an underground pipe.
 (AM, Jul/Aug ‘97 p.28)

1812  Oct 9, American Lieutenant Jesse Duncan Elliot captured two British brigs, the Detroit and Caledonia on Lake Erie in the War of 1812. Elliot set the brig Detroit ablaze the next day in retaliation for the British capture seven weeks earlier of the city of Detroit.
 (MC, 10/9/01)

1812  Oct 13, At the Battle of Queenston Heights, a Canadian and British army defeated the Americans who had tried to invade Canada. This was the 1st major land battle in the War of 1812.
 (HN, 10/13/98)(HNQ, 1/31/02)
1812  Oct 13, Isaac Brock, English general (conquered Detroit), died in battle.
 (MC, 10/13/01)

1812  Oct 19, French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte began their retreat from Moscow.
 (AP, 10/19/97)(HN, 10/19/98)

1812  Oct 22, The Duke of Wellington seized Burgos, Spain.
 (MC, 10/22/01)

1812  Oct 23, There was a failed coup against emperor Napoleon.
 (MC, 10/23/01)

1812  Oct 25, The U.S. frigate United States captured the British vessel Macedonian during the War of 1812.
 (AP, 10/25/98)

1812  Nov 9, Paul Abadie, French master builder (renovated Notre Dame), was born.
 (MC, 11/9/01)

1812  Nov 14, As Napoleon Bonaparte's army retreated form Moscow, temperatures dropped to 20 degrees below zero. Michel Ney defended the Napoleon‘s rear during the retreat from Moscow and was called by Napoleon "The bravest of the brave." He rejoined Napoleon during the Hundred Days and the Waterloo campaign. After Napoleon‘s defeat, he was found guilty of treason and shot. It was later suggested that many soldiers died because their tin coat buttons deteriorated in the extreme cold.
 (HN, 11/14/99)(HNQ, 9/21/00)(SSFC, 6/8/03, p.M2)

1812  Nov 26, Napoleon Bonaparte's army began crossing the Beresina River over two hastily constructed bridges.
 (HN, 11/26/99)

1812  Nov 27, One of the two bridges being used by Napoleon Bonaparte's army across the Beresina River in Russia collapsed during a Russian artillery barrage.
 (HN, 11/27/99)

1812  Nov 29, The last elements of Napoleon Bonaparte's Grand Armee retreats across the Beresina River in Russia.
 (HN, 11/29/99)

1812  Dec 2, James Madison was re-elected president of US; E. Gerry was vice-pres.
 (MC, 12/2/01)

1812  Dec 4, Peter Gaillard of Lancaster, Pa., patented a horse-drawn mower.
 (MC, 12/4/01)

1812   Dec 6, The majority of Napoleon Bonaparte's Grand Armeé staggers into Vilna, Lithuania, ending the failed Russian campaign
 (HN, 12/6/99)

1812  Dec 8, In California the Great Stone Church at Mission San Juan Capistrano crashed down after an earthquake just 6 years after being completed. Forty worshippers were killed. Half of the church under the work of architect Isidro Aguilar (d.1803) remained standing.
 (HT, 3/97, p.60)

1812  Dec 13, The last remnants of Napoleon Bonaparte's Grand Armeé reached the safety of Kovno, Poland after the failed Russian campaign.
 (HN, 12/13/99)

1812  Dec 18, Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in Paris after his disastrous campaign in Russia.
 (HN, 12/18/99)

1812  Dec 20, Achille Peri, composer, was born.
 (MC, 12/20/01)
1812  Dec 20, Sacagawea, Shoshone interpreter for Lewis & Clark, died.
 (MC, 12/20/01)

1812  Dec 24, Joel Barlow, aged 58, American poet and lawyer, died from exposure near Vilna, Poland [Lithuania], during Napoleon's retreat from Moscow. Barlow was on a diplomatic mission to the emperor for President Madison.
 (HN, 12/24/98)

1812  Pierre-Paul Prud’hon (1758-1823), French artist, painted "Venus and Adonis."
 (WSJ, 4/8/98, p.A20)

1812  Georges Cuvier, French anatomist, published his 4 volume work "Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles" (Research on Fossil Bones).
 (NH, 8/96, p.18)

1912  Louisa d’Andelot du Pont Copeland spearheaded the founding of the Delaware Art Museum.
 (WSJ, 7/10/00, p.A32)

1812  Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm published their first collection of "Folk Tales for Children and the Home." It included "The Frog King, or Iron Henry."
 (SFEC, 1/2/00, BR p.10)

1812  The 1st American recipe for tomato ketchup was published.
 (SFC, 8/27/03, p.E4)

1812  Madison proposed to France and England that if one would stop attacking American commerce at sea, then the US would break off commercial relations with the other. Napoleon quickly accepted Madison’s terms and under congressional pressure Madison declared war on England. He did not know that 24 hours prior to the declaration, England had voted to stop its abuses on American shipping.
 (A&IP, ESM, p.33)

1812  Mackinaw Island, Michigan, was recaptured by the British.
 (SSFC, 7/27/03, p.C5)

1812  The Cherokee Indians sided with the United States in the War of 1812.
 (NG, 5/95, p.78)

1812  Maine separated from the state of Massachusetts.
 (WSJ, 8/6/99, p.W12)

1912  Du Pont was forced to give up a big piece of its explosives business due to government trust busting but kept its military line and became the chief supplier to the Allies in WW I. The Hagley Museum and Library in Wilmington tracked the business history of the du Ponts.
 (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R46)(WSJ, 2/25/99, p.A1)

1812  The small Bank of America was founded in NYC.
 (SFC, 4/14/98, p.B1)

1812  John Jacob Astor and Stephen Girard personally financed the US War.
 (WSJ, 1/2/97, p.6)

1812  Aaron Benedict started a button-making business in Waterbury, Conn. The name was changed to Benedict & Burnham in 1834, and to Benedict & Burnham Manufacturing in 1843.
 (SFC, 3/19/97, z1 p.3)

1812  The steamboat New Orleans was built in Pittsburgh and steamed to New Orleans but lacked sufficient power to return upstream.
 (ON, 7/02, p.9)

1812  Mason Weems made his sermon concerning gambling: "O gamblers!... You are engaged in the most horrible warfare that rational beings can ever undertake. A warfare most unnatural; even against the best and noblest part of your nature—your social affections and sympathies with your kind.
 (WSJ, 8/14/98, p.W11)

1812  Mary Anning of Lyme Regis in Dorcetshire, England, excavated a 17-foot-long skeleton and sold it to Henry Hoste Henley, Lord of the Manor of Colway for £23. The fossil was later named Icthyosaurus.
 (ON, 3/01, p.5)

1812  Swiss explorer Jean Louis Burckhardt rediscovered the ancient city of Petra in present-day Jordan.
 (HNQ, 5/26/01)

1812-1840 Carl Ludvig Engel, a Prussian architect, redesigned and rebuilt Helsinki as the capital of the Grand Duchy of Finland-Russia.
 (SFEM, 8/8/99, p.44)

1812-1841 Russian fur traders established the settlement of Fort Ross in northern California.
 (WCG, p.74)

1812-1870 Alexander Herzen, Russian author: "Life has taught me to think, but thinking has not taught me how to live."
 (AP, 8/15/99)

1812-1888 May 12, Edward Lear, English author of nonsense verse is born.
 (HFA, ‘96, p.30)(AHD, p.744)

1813  Jan 2, In Vilnius, Lithuania, Russian Army head M. Kutuzov announced the end of war in Russia.
 (LHC, 1/3/03)

1813  Jan 4, Isaac Pitman, inventor (stenographic shorthand), was born in Britain.
 (MC, 1/4/02)

1813  Jan 11, The 1st pineapples were planted in Hawaii (or 1/21).
 (MC, 1/11/02)

1813  Jan 18, Joseph Farwell Glidden, inventor of barbed wire, was born.
 (HN, 1/18/99)(MC, 1/18/02)

1813  Jan 22, Americans captured Frenchtown, Canada.
 (MC, 1/22/02)
1813  Jan 22, During the War of 1812, British forces under Henry Proctor along with Indian allies under Tecumseh defeated a U.S. contingent planning an attack on Fort Detroit.
 (HN, 1/22/99)(AM, 7/00, p.19)

1813  Jan 29, Jane Austin published "Pride and Prejudice," a blend of instruction and moral entertainment.
 (HN, 1/29/99)

1813  Feb 18, Czar Alexander entered Warsaw at the head of his Army.
 (HN, 2/18/99)

1813  Feb 23, 1st US raw cotton-to-cloth mill was founded in Waltham, Mass.
 (MC, 2/23/02)

1813  Feb 24, Off Guiana, the American sloop Hornet under Master Commandant James Lawrence sank the British sloop Peacock.
 (HN, 2/24/98)(ON, 10/99, p.12)

1813  Feb 26, Robert R. Livingston (66), US diplomat (Declaration of Independence), died.
 (SC, 2/26/02)

1813  Feb 27, The 1st federal vaccination legislation was enacted.
 (MC, 2/27/02)

1813    Feb 28, Russia and Prussia formed the Kalisz union against Napoleon.
 (LHC,2/28/03)

1813  Mar 3, Office of Surgeon General of the US army was established.
 (SC, 3/3/02)

1813  Mar 4, The Russians fighting against Napoleon reached Berlin. The French garrison evacuated the city without a fight.
 (HN, 3/4/99)

1813  Mar 8, The 1st concert of Royal Philharmonic.
 (MC, 3/8/02)

1813  Mar 19, David Livingston, explorer found by Stanley in Africa, was born in Scotland.
 (HN, 3/19/98)(MC, 3/19/02)

1813  Mar 21, James Jesse Strang, King of Mormons on Beaver Is, MI. (1850-56), was born.
 (MC, 3/21/02)

1813  Mar 25, The first U.S. flag flown in battle was on the frigate Essex in the Pacific.
 (HN, 3/24/98)

1813  Mar 27, Nathaniel Currier, lithographer for Currier and Ives, was born.
 (HN, 3/27/98)

1813  Apr 14, Junius S. Morgan, US merchant, philanthropist (Metro Museum of Art), was born.
 (MC, 4/14/02)
1813  Apr 14, Joachim Nicolas Eggert (34), composer, died.
 (MC, 4/14/02)

1813  Apr 15, U.S. troops under James Wilkinson sieged the Spanish-held city of Mobile in future state of Alabama.
 (HN, 4/15/99)

1813  Apr 19, Benjamin Rush (67), physician, revolutionary (signed Declaration of Independence), died.
 (MC, 4/19/02)

1813  Apr 23, Stephen Douglas (d.1861), the "Little Giant," was born. He debated Abraham Lincoln for a seat on the U.S. Senate and later lost to Lincoln for the presidency of the United States. He argued that the Declaration of Independence did not mean to include blacks.
 (WSJ,2/12/97, p.A16)(HN, 4/23/99)

1813  Apr 27, Americans forces under Gen. Zebulon M. Pike (34) captured York (present day Toronto), the seat of government in Ontario; Pike was killed.
 (HN, 4/27/99)(MC, 4/27/02)

1813  Apr 29, Rubber was patented.
 (HN, 4/29/98)

1813  Apr, Captain David Porter of the U.S. Navy sailed the USS Essex into the Galapagos Archipelago after a six month journey around Cape Horn, eager to find a way to help his country in their powder-keg relations with Great Britain. Capt. Porter made his first landfall at a place called Post Office Bay, on Charles Island, and raided the barrel there that served as the informal but effective communications link between whaling ships and the outside world. The primitive post box, a barrel system of drop-off and pick-up, had been established some 20 years earlier, but its efficiency had become well-known. Inside of half a year, Capt. Porter and the Essex had captured 12 British whalers and devastated the whale British industry in the Pacific, forcing a reallocation of Royal Navy ships to a distant region far from the "home front" in North America.
 (Terraquest, http://www.terraquest.com/assignment/assignment.html)

1813  May 2, Napoleon defeated a Russian and Prussian army at Grossgorschen. During the Napoleonic Wars a British naval officer proposed the use of saturation bombing and chemical warfare.
 (HN, 5/2/98)

1813  May 5, Soren Kierkegaard (d.1855), Danish philosopher and theologian, was born. He founded Existentialism and believed that man's relation to God must be an agonizing experience. "Truth is not introduced into the individual from without, but was within him all the time." His books included the philosophical novel "Diary of a Seducer."
 (WUD, 1994, p.786)(AP, 10/23/97)(SFC, 9/4/98, p.C5)(HN, 5/5/99)

1813  May 9, U.S. troops under William Henry Harrison rescued Fort Meigs from British and Canadian troops.
 (HN, 5/9/99)

1813  May 10, Montgomery Blair, lawyer in the Dred Scot case, was born in Franklin County, Ky. The case decided the limits of slavery.
 (HN, 5/10/99)(MC, 5/10/02)

1813  May 22, Richard Wagner, German composer, conductor and writer, was born in Leipzig, Germany. He composed "The Flying Dutchman."
 (AP, 5/22/97)(HN, 5/22/99)

1813  May 27, Americans captured Fort George, Canada.
 (HN, 5/27/98)

1813   Jun 1, The U.S. Navy gained its motto as the mortally wounded commander of the U.S. frigate "Chesapeake", Captain James Lawrence (b.1871) was heard to say, "Don’t give up the ship!", during a losing battle with a British frigate "Shannon"; his ship was captured by the British frigate.
 (DTnet, 6/1/97)(AP, 6/1/98)(ON, 10/99, p.12)

1813  Jun 5, Captain James Lawrence died from his wounds as the Shannon towed the Chesapeake to Halifax. Lawrence was buried with honors on Jun 8 and his remains were later sent to NYC for burial in Trinity churchyard.
 (ON, 10/99, p.12)

1813  Jun 6, The U.S. invasion of Canada was halted at Stoney Creek, Ontario.
 (HN, 6/6/98)

1813  Jun 8, David D. Porter, Union Admiral, was born.
 (HN, 6/8/98)

1813  Jun 21, The Peninsular War ended. It began on February 16, 1808, when Napoleon ordered a large French force into Spain under the pretext of sending reinforcements to the French army occupying Portugal.
 (MC, 6/21/02)

1813  Jun 24, Henry Ward Beecher (1887), American clergyman, was born. "Even a liar tells a hundred truths to one lie; he has to, to make the lie good for anything."
 (AP, 5/2/97)(HN, 6/24/01)

1813  Jul 15, Napoleon Bonaparte’s representatives met with the Allies in Prague to discuss peace terms.
 (HN, 7/15/98)

1813  Aug 9, After reports that British naval vessels were nearing St. Michaels, Md., to attack the shipbuilding town that night, the county militia placed lanterns on the tops of the tallest trees and on the masts of vessels in the harbor; and had all other lights extinguished. When the British attacked, they directed their fire too high and overshot the town.
 (HNQ, 11/25/02)

1813  Aug 10, A number of British barges manned by marines shelled the town of St. Michaels, Md., on the Chesapeake Bay. Residents had hoisted lanterns to treetops and masts and caused the British canons to overshoot their mark. One house was hit by a cannonball on the roof and the ball rolled across the attic and down the staircase frightening Mrs. Merchant as she carried her infant daughter downstairs.
 (SMBA, 1996)

1813  Aug 27, The Allies defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Dresden.
 (HN, 8/27/98)

1813  Aug 30, Creek Indians massacred over 500 whites at Fort Mims Alabama.
 (HN, 8/30/98)

1813  Sep 7, The earliest known printed reference to the United States by the nickname "Uncle Sam" occurred in the Troy Post. [see Oct, 1814]
 (HN, 9/7/98)
 
1813  Sep 10, The nine-ship American flotilla under Oliver Hazard Perry wrested naval supremacy from the British on Lake Erie by capturing or destroying a force of six English vessels in the War of 1812. With Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry’s flagship unable to fight, an outmatched British flotilla faced the prospect of a remarkable victory. But Perry only transferred his pennant to another ship and fought on. American Captain Oliver Hazard Perry led his home-built 10-vessel fleet to victory against a six-vessel British squadron commanded by Captain Robert H. Barclay in the Battle of Lake Erie. Perry’s triumph, marked by his legendary message to General William Henry Harrison, "We have met the enemy and they are ours," was of great strategic value for the United States because it ensured American control of the Northwest Territory. During the battle, Perry left his badly damaged Lawrence and transferred his motto flag, reading, "Don’t Give Up the Ship," to Niagara. From there he continued the fight.
 (AP, 9/10/97)(HN, 9/10/98)(HNPD, 9/10/98)

1813  Sep 13, John Sedgwick (d.1864), Major General (Union volunteers), was born.
 (MC, 9/13/01)

1813  Sep 24, Andre-Ernest-Modeste Gretry, composer, died at 72.
 (MC, 9/24/01)

1813  Oct 5, The Battle of Moraviantown was decisive in the War of 1812. Known as the Battle of the Thames in the United States, the U.S. victory over British and Indian forces near Ontario at the village of Moraviantown on the Thames River is know in Canada as the Battle of Moraviantown. Some 600 British regulars and 1,000 Indian allies under English General and Shawnee leader Tecumseh were greatly outnumbered and quickly defeated by U.S. forces under the command of Maj. Gen. William Henry Harrison. Tecumseh was killed in this battle. [see Oct 15]
 (HN, 10/5/98)(HNQ, 10/20/98)(MC, 10/5/01)

1813  Oct 9, Giuseppe Verdi, Italian composer (Traviata, Rigoletto, Aida), was born. [see Oct 10]
 (MC, 10/9/01)

1813  Oct 10, Composer Giuseppe Verdi was born in Le Roncole, Italy. [see Oct 9]
 (HFA, ‘96, p.40)(AP, 10/10/97)(HN, 10/10/98)

1813  Oct 15, During the land defeat of the British on the Thames River in Canada, the Indian chief Tecumseh, now a brigadier general with the British Army (War of 1812), was killed. [see Oct 5]
 (HN, 10/15/98)

1813  Oct 16, In the Battle at Leipzig Napoleon faced Prussia, Austria & Russia.
 (MC, 10/16/01)

1813  Oct 17, Georg Buchner, German playwright (Danton's Death, Woyzeck), was born.
 (MC, 10/17/01)

1813  Oct 18, The Allies defeated Napoleon Bonaparte at Leipzig.
 (HN, 10/18/98)

1813  Oct 29, The Demologos, the first steam-powered warship, was launched in New York City.
 (HN, 10/29/98)

1813  Nov 2, Treaty of Fulda.
 (MC, 11/2/01)

1813  Nov 3, American troops destroy the Indian village of Tallushatchee in the Mississippi Valley. US troops under Gen Coffee destroyed an Indian village at Talladega, Ala.
 (HN, 11/3/99)(MC, 11/3/01)

1813  Nov 6, Chilpancingo congress declared Mexico independent of Spain.
 (MC, 11/6/01)

1813  Nov 16, The British announced a blockade of Long Island Sound, leaving only the New England coast open to shipping.
 (HN, 11/16/98)

1813  Nov 29, Giambattista Bodoni (73), Italian stamp cutter, publisher, and type font designer (bodoni), died.
 (MC, 11/29/01)

1813  Dec 8, Ludwig van Beethoven's 7th Symphony in A, premiered.
 (MC, 12/8/01)

1813  Dec 10, Zachariah Chandler, US merchant and politician, was born. He founded the Republican Party.
 (MC, 12/10/01)

1813  Dec 18, British took Ft. Niagara in War of 1812.
 (MC, 12/18/01)

1813  Dec 20, Dr. Samuel Mudd, doctor who helped Lincoln assassin John Wilkes Booth, was born. [2nd ref. says 1833]
 (HN, 12/20/98)(MC, 12/20/01)

1813  Dec 29, The British burned Buffalo, N.Y., during the War of 1812.
 (AP, 12/29/97)

1813  Dec 31, Some 83,000 Prussian and Russian soldiers pursued Napoleon across the Rhine at Pfalzgrafenstein Castle.
 (SFEC, 3/15/98, p.T5)

1813  Raphaelle Peale, son of Charles Willson, painted his still life "Black-berries."
 (SFC, 1/25/97, p.E1)

1813  The Rossini opera "L’Italiana in Algeri" had its premier in Venice. [see 1808]
 (SFC, 7/12/97, p.E1)

1813  In New Mexico El Santuario del Senor de Esquipulas was built. It is a tiny chapel near the village of Chimayo, and one of the 6 adobe missions scattered along the western shoulder of the Sangre de Cristo mountains between Taos and Santa Fe. Rumor has it that Don Bernardo Abeyta, a Catholic penitent from Santa Cruz, found a buried crucifix here in 1810 while on a pilgrimage. Native Americans called this valley Tsimayo-pokwi and believed it to be holy ground.
 (SFC, 5/12/96, p.T-5)

1813  The US federal government was almost broke from the war with Britain but was able to get Stephen Girard, wealthy ship owner and banker, to help finance the war effort. Congress quickly moved to charter the Second Bank of the US.
 (WSJ, 3/12/97, p.A18)

1813  A new 45 carat blue diamond emerged in France. It was guessed to have been cut from the 112 carat Blue Diamond of the crown jewels. The 112 carot stone was recut in 1673 to 67 carats.
 (THC, 12/3/97)(EB, 1993, V6 p.51)

1813  John (Cameron) Gilroy of Scotland sailed from England on the Isaac Todd to Monterey, Ca., where he was dropped off to recover from scurvy.
 (SFC, 11/29/97, p.A14)

1813  A troop ship returning from the War of 1812 was blown ashore at Cape Pine on Newfoundland’s Avalon Peninsula. All 350 passengers died.
 (SFEC, 9/29/96, p.T-6)

1813  Andrew Jackson received a bullet wound that shattered his left shoulder. The bullet was not removed until 1832 and was later suspected of causing lead poisoning.
 (SFC, 8/11/99, p.A2)

1813  Zebulon Montgomery Pike, the American explorer who has a Colorado mountain named for him, died leading an attack that captured York, now known as Toronto, in the War of 1812. Pike, born in New Jersey in 1779, sighted in 1806 but did not climb the mountain that would later be named Pikes Peak in the Colorado Rockies. Pike led two expeditions from 1805 to 1807, one in the upper Mississippi region of the Louisiana Purchase and the second in what is now New Mexico and Colorado. As a brigadier general, Pike was killed, when a powder magazine exploded as he led the assault on York, then capital of upper Canada. Some 320 Americans were killed or wounded in the explosion.
 (HNQ, 5/7/98)

1813  In Australia explorers Gregory Blaxland, William Wentworth and William Lawson blazed the first trail from Sidney across the Blue Mountains to the fertile western plains.
 (Hem., 1/97, p.53)

1813  In Canada American militiamen burned down the town of Niagara-on-the Lake.
 (WSJ, 8/29/97, p.A9)

1813  Prussia took over Danzig.
 (WSJ, 8/31/98, p.A4)

1813  The Prussians introduced the Iron Cross during the Napoleonic wars.
 (WSJ, 4/23/99, A1)

1813  A Swiss traveller discovered the Great and Small Temples of Ramses II at Abu Simbel in Egypt.
 (NG, May 1985, R. Caputo, p.591)

1813-1828 Russia gains control of northern Azerbaijan due to the weak local power of the khanates. Industrialization and oil extraction are expanded.
 (Compuserve Online, Grolier’s Amer. Acad. Enc./ Azerbaijan)

1813-1843 Robert Southey was the poet laureate of England over this period. He was the author of "The Three Bears."
 (SFEC, 2/15/98, Z1 p.8)

1813-1855  Soren Kierkegaard, Danish philosopher: "Truth is not introduced into the individual from without, but was within him all the time." "Don’t forget to love yourself."
 (AP, 10/23/97)(AP, 3/5/98)

1813-1887 Ellen Wood, English playwright and journalist: "It is not so much what we have done amiss, as what we have left undone, that will trouble us, looking back."
 (AP, 2/13/01)

1813-1891 Prince Louis-Lucien Bonaparte, linguist, amassed a collection of some 14,000 books on linguistics. Because his special interest was the Finnish and Estonian languages, he gathered extensively from the whole Baltic region. The collection was sold in 1894 to the Newberry Library in Chicago from a London bookseller.
 (DrEE, 9/28/96, p.4)

1813-1901 Oct 10, Giuseppe Verdi, Italian composer was born. Best know for his operas.
 (AHD, 1971, p.1422)(HFA, ‘96, p.40)

1813-1908 Thomas Mellon, American empire builder and judge, made his fortune in real-estate speculation and founded the Mellon Bank.
 (WSJ, 2/27/95, p.A-10)

1814  Jan 2, Lord Byron completed "The Corsair."
 (MC, 1/2/02)

1814  Jan 27, Johann Gottlieb Fichte (b.1762), German philosopher, died.
 (MC, 1/27/02)

1814  Feb 9, Samuel Jones Tilden, philanthropist, was born.
 (HN, 2/9/97)(MC, 2/9/02)

1814  Feb 10, Napoleon personally directed lightning strikes against enemy columns advancing toward Paris, beginning with a victory over the Russians at Champaubert. During the Napoleonic Wars a British naval officer proposed the use of saturation bombing and chemical warfare to undermine the strength of Emperor Napoleon.
 (HN, 2/10/97)

1814  Feb 21, Nicolo Gabrielli, composer, was born.
 (MC, 2/21/02)

1814  Feb 27, Ludwig von Beethoven's 8th Symphony in F, premiered.
 (MC, 2/27/02)
1814  Feb 27, Napoleon’s Marshal Nicholas Oudinot was pushed back at Barsur-Aube by the Emperor’s allied enemies shortly before his abdication.
 (HN, 2/27/98)

1814  Feb, A man claiming to be an aide-de-camp to the armies fighting Napoleon landed in Dover and claimed that Cossacks had butchered Napoleon and that Paris had fallen. Stock prices soared and conspirators sold shares at a 15% profit before the fraud was unmasked.
 (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)

1849  Mar 3, Gold Coinage Act authorized the $20 Double Eagle gold coin.
 (SC, 3/3/02)

1849  Mar 4, The US had no President. Polk's term ended on a Sunday and Taylor couldn't be sworn-in; Senator David Atchison (pres pro tem) term had ended March 3rd.
 (SC, 3/4/02)

1814  Mar 10, Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by a combined Allied Army at the battle of Laon, in France.
 (HN, 3/10/99)

1814  Mar 27, General Jackson led U.S. soldiers who killed 700 Creek Indians at Horseshoe Bend, La. [in Northern Alabama] Jackson lost 49 men. In 2001 John Buchanon authored "Jackson’s Way" and Robert V. Remini authored "Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars."
 (SFEC, 2/16/97, BR p.4)(HN, 3/27/99)(WSJ, 7/26/01, p.A12)

1814  Mar 29, In the Battle at Horseshoe Bend, Alabama, Andrew Jackson beat the Creek Indians. [see Mar 27]
 (MC, 3/29/02)

1814  Mar 30, Britain and allies marched into Paris after defeating Napoleon.
 (MC, 3/30/02)

1814  Mar 31, Forces allied against Napoleon captured Paris.
 (MC, 3/31/02)

1814  Apr 2, Henry Lewis "Old Rock" Benning, Brig General in Confederate Army, was born.
 (MC, 4/2/02)

1814  Apr 6, Granted sovereignty in the island of Elba and a pension from the French government, Napoleon Bonaparte abdicated at Fontainebleau. He was allowed to keep the title of emperor. [see Apr 11]
 (HN, 4/6/99)

1814  Apr 11, Napoleon Bonaparte first abdicated as emperor of France and was banished to the island of Elba. [see Apr 6]
 (AP, 4/11/97)(HN, 4/11/98)

1814  Apr 15, John Lothrop Motley, US historian, author (Rise of Dutch Rep), was born.
 (MC, 4/15/02)

1814  Apr 26, King Louis XVIII landed on Calais from England.
 (MC, 4/26/02)

1814  Apr, The Duke of Wellington led 60,000 troops against 325,000 French troops at Toulouse and defeated them just days after Napoleon abdicated the throne.
 (WSJ, 1/6/95, A-10)

1814  May 4, Napoleon Bonaparte disembarked at Portoferraio on the island of Elba in the Mediterranean.
 (HN, 5/4/99)
1814  May 4, Bourbon reign was restored in France. Louis XVIII was crowned as successor to his guillotined brother.
 (MC, 5/4/02)

1814  May 5, The British attacked Ft. Ontario, Oswego, New York.
 (HN, 5/5/98)

1814  May 6, Wilhelm Ernst, violinist, composer, was born.
 (MC, 5/6/02)
1814  May 6, George Joseph Vogler (64), composer, died.
 (MC, 5/6/02)

1814  May 11, Americans defeated the British at Battle of Plattsburgh.
 (MC, 5/11/02)

1814  May 12, Robert Treat Paine (83), US judge (signed Declaration of Ind), died.
 (MC, 5/12/02)

1814  May 17, Norway’s constitution was signed, providing for a limited monarchy. Denmark ceded Norway to Sweden.
 (AP, 5/17/97)(HN, 5/17/98)
 
1814  May 29, Empress Josephine (1804-14), first wife of Napoleon Bonaparte, died. She maintained grand roses at Malmaison, where there were an estimated 250 varieties.
 (TGR, 1995, p.2)(SC, 5/29/02)

1814  May 30, The First Treaty of Paris was declared, after Napoleon's first abdication. It returned France to its 1792 borders and secured for the British definite possession of the Cape of Good Hope.
 (HN, 5/30/98)(HN, 5/30/99)(EWH, 4th ed, p.884)

1814  Jun 1, Philip Kearney, Union Civil War general, was born. He was killed at the Battle of Chantilly, Virginia.
 (HN, 6/1/99)

1814  Jun 3, Nicolas Appert (b.1749), French cook, died. He was the winner of a 12,000 franc prize offered by Napoleon for developing a method to preserve food. His original canning method took 14 years to develop and used glass jars sealed with wax reinforced with wire.
 (WSJ, 1/21/03, p.A1)(www.foodreference.com)

1814  Jul 5, U.S. troops under Jacob Brown defeated a superior British force at Chippewa, Canada.
 (HN, 7/5/98)

1814  Jul 7, Sir Walter Scott's (1771-1832) novel "Waverly" was published anonymously so as not to damage his reputation as a poet.
 (HN, 7/7/01)(WUD, 1994 p.1281)

1814  Jul 18, The British captured Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin.
 (MC, 7/18/02)

1814  Jul 19, Samuel Colt, inventor of the first practical revolver, was born.
 (HN, 7/19/98)

1814  Jul 22, Five Indian tribes in Ohio made peace with the United States and declared war on Britain.
 (HN, 7/22/98)

1814  Jul 25, British and American forces fought each other to a stand off at Lundy's Lane (Niagara Falls), Canada, in some of the fiercest fighting in the War of 1812.
 (HN, 7/25/98)

1814  Aug 9, Andrew Jackson and the Creek Indians signed the Treaty of Fort Jackson, giving the whites 23 million acres of Mississippi Creek territory. This ended Indian resistance in the region and opened the doors to pioneers after the conclusion of the War of 1812.
 (HN, 8/9/98)(HNQ, 8/13/99)

1814  Aug 13, By agreement Britain paid the Dutch £6 million in compensation for the Cape of Good Hope.
 (EWH, 4th ed, p.884)

1814  Aug 19, British forces landed on the Patuxent River and routed the Americans in the Battle of Bladensburg, and then marched to Washington.
 (HNQ, 12/10/00)

1814  Aug 24, 5,000 British troops under the command of General Robert Ross marched into Washington, D.C., after defeating an American force at Bladensburg, Maryland. It was in retaliation for the American burning of the parliament building in York (Toronto), the capital of Upper Canada. Meeting no resistance from the disorganized American forces, the British burned the White House, the Capitol and almost every public building in the city before a downpour extinguished the fires. President James Madison and his wife fled from the advancing enemy, but not before Dolly Madison saved the famous Gilbert Stuart portrait of George Washington. This wood engraving of Washington in flames was printed in London weeks after the event to celebrate the British victory.
 (AP, 8/24/97)(HNPD, 8/24/98)(HN, 8/24/98)
1814  Aug 24, The US Capitol and White House in Washington D.C. were burned and sacked by British General Robert Ross and Rear Admiral Sir George Cockburn. This made Congress realize the need for quick transportation and sparked the digging of the Chesapeake-Delaware Canal.
 (NG, Sept. 1939, J. Maloney p.379)

1814  Aug 25, British forces destroyed the Library of Congress, containing some 3,000 books.
 (MC, 8/25/02)

1814  Aug, After the British burned the White House in 1814, President James Madison lived in the nearby Octagon—so named because of its unique eight-sided shape—until the end of his term.
 (HNQ, 10/28/00)

1814  Sep 11, An American fleet led by Thomas Macdonough scored a decisive victory over the British in the Battle of Lake Champlain in the War of 1812.
 (AP, 9/11/97)(HN, 9/11/98)

1814  Sep 12, A British fleet under Sir Alexander Cochrane began the bombardment of Fort McHenry, the last American defense before Baltimore. Lawyer Francis Scott Key had approached the British attackers seeking the release of a friend who was being held for unfriendly acts toward the British. Key himself was detained overnight on September 13 and witnessed the bombardment of Fort McHenry from a British ship. As the sun rose, Key was amazed to see the American flag still flying over the battered fort. This experience inspired Key to write the lyrics to "The Star-Spangled Banner" and adapt them to the tune of a well-known British drinking song. "The Star-Spangled Banner" was officially recognized as the national anthem in 1931.
 (HNPD, 9/12/98)
1814  Sep 12, The Battle of North Point was fought near Baltimore during War of 1812.
 (MC, 9/12/01)

1814  Sep 13, British ships bombarded Ft. McHenry under the command of General Armistead. Francis Scott Key detained on a British ship watched the bombing. The British used red-glaring Congreve rockets and air-bursting bombs during the war.
 (NG, Sept. 1939, J. Maloney p.392)(SFC, 6/22/96, p.E4)

1814  Sep 14, In the dawn light Francis Scott Key saw that the American flag still waved over Fort McHenry in Maryland during the War of 1812. He looked on from the deck of a sloop on the Patasco River nine miles away and wrote "The Star Spangled Banner." The flag was 40 feet long and had been made by Baltimore widow Mary Young Pickersgill and her 13-year-old daughter just a month before the attack. In 1907 the flag was donated to the Smithsonian.
 (SFC, 7/4/97, p.A2)(AP, 9/14/97)(HN, 9/14/98)(WSJ, 7/3/02, p.B1)

1814  Sep 15, The words of the "Star-Spangled Banner," written by Francis Scott Key following the Sep 13 attack on Fort Henry, was printed on a handbill without the name of Francis Scott Key and originally known as "The Defense of Fort McHenry."
 (HNQ, 2/16/02)

1814  Sep 21, "Star Spangled Banner" was published as a poem.
 (MC, 9/21/01)

1814  Sep, The Congress of Vienna convened.
 (WUD, 1994, p.1677)

1814  Sep, Alexander I of Russia entered Paris at the head of an anti-Napoleon coalition.
 (WSJ, 6/26/96, p.A16)

1814  Oct 3, Mikhail Yurevich Lermontov (d.1841), Russian poet and writer (Demon), was born.
 (WUD, 1994 p.822)(MC, 10/3/01)

1814  Oct, The name Uncle Sam, a nickname for the United States, was coined during the War of 1812. Workers at Samuel Wilson’s meat-packing plant in Troy, N.Y., which supplied provisions to the U.S. Army, joked that the U.S. stamped on the barrels bound for the troops actually stood for their boss Uncle Sam Wilson. Army contractor Elbert Anderson, Jr. sought bids to provide food for the 5,000 soldiers at the Greenbush Cantonment near Troy, NY. The firm of E. & S. Wilson (Ebenezar and Samuel, d.1854 at 87) provided many of the rations in oak casks labelled "E.A.-U.S.," as required by the contract. A quip attributed the casks to Elbert Anderson and his Uncle Sam. Later government property in general became referred to as "Uncle Sam’s." [see Sep 7, 1813]
 (Hem., 7/95, p.89)(WC, Summer ‘97, p.3)

1814  Nov 5, Having decided to abandon the Niagara frontier, the American army blew up Fort Erie.
 (HN, 11/5/98)

1814  Nov 6, Adolphe Sax (d.1894), instrument maker and inventor of the saxophone, was born. [see Jun 23, 1848]
 (WUD, 1994, p.1272)(HN, 11/6/98)

1814  Nov 7, Andrew Jackson attacked and captured Pensacola, Florida, defeating the Spanish and driving out a British force.
 (HN, 11/7/98)

1814  Nov 13, Joseph Hooker (d.1879), Major General (Union volunteers), was born.
 (MC, 11/13/01)

1814  Nov, Unable to pay in specie [i.e. gold] as required by law, the US government offered to pay its debt in paper. Most banks refused to accept the Treasury notes as security and war bonds fell to 60 cents on the dollar.
 (WSJ, 12/12/95, p.A-19)

1814  Dec 1, The shallow-draft steamboat Enterprise, completed in Pittsburgh under the direction of keelboat captain Henry Miller Shreve, left for New Orleans to deliver guns and ammunition to Gen. Jackson.
 (ON, 7/02, p.9)

1814  Dec 2, Marquis de Sade (74), writer, died.
 (MC, 12/2/01)

1814  Dec 13, General Andrew Jackson announced martial law in New Orleans, Louisiana, as British troops disembarked at Lake Borne, 40 miles east of the city.
 (HN, 12/13/98)

1814  Dec 14, The steamboat Enterprise, designed by keelboat captain Henry Miller Shreve, arrived in New Orleans with guns and ammunition for Gen. Jackson. It was immediately commandeered for military service.
 (ON, 7/02, p.9)

1814  Dec 19, Edwin McMasters Stanton, US Secretary of War (1861-65), was born in Ohio.
 (MC, 12/19/01)

1814  Dec 24, The Treaty of Ghent between the United States and Great Britain, terminating the War of 1812, was signed at Ghent, Belgium. The news did not reach the United States until two weeks later (after the decisive American victory at New Orleans). The treaty, singed by John Quincy Adams for the US, committed the US and Britain "to use their best endeavors" to end the Atlantic slave trade.
 (AP, 12/24/97)(WSJ, 12/31/97, p.A11)(HN, 12/24/98)(SFEC, 11/21/99, p.T10)

1814  Dec 24, Austrian Emperor Francis I appointed Joseph Ritter von Prechtl as the first director of the Polytechnical Institute of Vienna.
 (StuAus, April ‘95, p.18)

c1814  Pierre-Paul Prud’hon (1758-1823), French artist, drew his "Bust of a Female Figure."
 (WSJ, 12/5/96, p.A16)

1814  ETA Hoffman’s "Best Tales of Hoffman" was published.

1814  Rossini composed his opera "Il Turco in Italia."
 (WSJ, 11/10/98, p.A20)

1814  The Avila House, a thick-walled adobe building at 14 Olvera in Los Angeles, was built.
 (SFEC,12/797, p.T3)

1814  The Monterey Custom’s House was built by the Mexican government on the Monterey Peninsula in California.
 (Hem., 1/96, p.26)

1814  The 1st Odd Fellows arrived in the US from Europe. The fraternal organization was founded in Europe in the 18th century. [see 1819]
 (SFC, 11/28/00, p.A25)

1814  Andrew Jackson called the followers of French freebooter Jean Lafitte "hellish banditti." Jackson later revised his opinion and asked Lafitte to aid him against the British in the defense of New Orleans. Many of the 4,500 men behind Jackson‘s entrenchments at New Orleans on January 8, 1815, were followers of Lafitte.
 (HN, 1/17/00)

1814  David Farragut, a ship's boy on the frigate Essex, was captured by the British when the Essex was defeated by the British.
 (WSJ, 1/26/00, p.A20)

1814  Jose Dario Arguello, Spanish-born commander of the Presidio, served as the governor of Alta California. He was later buried at Mission Dolores.
 (SFEC, 9/21/97, p.C7)

1814  The Marquis de Sade died. His writings included "Justine," "Juliette," and "120 Days of Sodom." In 1999 Neal Schaeffer published "The Marquis De Sade: A Life," and Francine du Plessix Gray published "At Home With the Marquis De Sade: A Life."
 (SFEC, 7/25/99, BR p.3)

1814  The Treaty of Fontainebleau first exiled Napoleon to Elba, a small island in the Mediterranean, retaining the title of emperor and 400 volunteers to act as his guard. Although Napoleon stated that he wanted nothing more than to "live like a justice of the peace," the ambitious Corsican was not about to retire at the age of 45.
 (HNQ, 1/9/01)

1814  In Legazpi, Philippines, the Mayon volcano erupted and 1,200 people were killed.
 (SFC, 6/25/01, p.A9)

1814  The Kingdom of Sardinia was united with the Kingdom of Liguria.
 (WUD, 1994, p.830)

1814-1815 Sep-Jun, The Congress of Vienna was held after the banishment of Napoleon to Elba. Prince Metternich of Austria was the dominant figure and it aimed at territorial resettlement and restoration to power of the crowned heads of Europe. Viscount Castlereagh and the Duke of Wellington represented Britain. Alexander I stood for Russia. Talleyrand stood for France. Prince von Hardenberg stood for Prussia.
 (WUD, 1994, p.310, 1677)

1814-1864 Hong Xiuquan, believed himself to be the second son of God. In 1851 he declared himself king of China and the world. In 1853 his Taiping army took the city of Nanjing as its heavenly capital. He ruled there until 1864. When the Qing (Manchu) government troops tightened their siege he died from eating what he said was manna sent by God to alleviate his believer’s starvation. His story is told by Jonathan D. Spence in God’s Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan.
 (WSJ, 1/5/96, p.A-8)

1814-1875 Jean Francois Millet, French painter. He painted "The Gleaners."
 (AAP, 1964)(WUD, 1994, p.894)

1814-1876 Mikhail Bakunin was an authoritarian anarchist.
 (WSJ, 8/24/98, p.A10)

1814-1903 Nicolaas Beets, born Sept. 13, died Mar. 13. Dutch poet and prose writer. He was a professor of theology at Utrecht after 1874. In 1839, while a student in Leiden, he published under the pseudonym of Hildebrand the first version of his Camera Obscura (completed 1854), a remarkable collection of stories and essays filled with keen observations, insight into character, and humorous episodes.
 (CO, Amer. Her. Dic., 6/25/95)

1814-1969 In Hohenberg, Bavaria, C.M. Hutschreuther operated a porcelain factory and inscribed his ware with various marks. e.g. A crown over the initials CM in a shield with 18 on one side and 14 on the other was used from 1950-1963.
 (SFC, 8/14/96, z-1 p.5)

1815  Jan 5, Federalists from all over New England, angered over the War of 1812, drew up the Hartford Convention, demanding several important changes in the U.S. Constitution.
 (HN, 1/5/99)

1815  Jan 8, U.S. forces led by Gen. Andrew Jackson and French pirate Jean Lafitte led 4,000 backwoodsmen to victory against 8,000 British veterans on the fields of Chalmette in the Battle of New Orleans -- the closing engagement of the War of 1812. A British army marched on New Orleans without knowing that the War of 1812 had ended on Christmas Eve of 1814. A massacre ensued, as 2,044 British troops, including three generals, fell dead, wounded or missing before General Andrew Jackson's well-prepared earthworks, compared with only 71 American casualties. Among the British victims were the Highlanders of the 93rd Regiment of Foot, mowed down by Jackson's contingent of U.S. Marines. In 2000 Robert V. Remini published "The Battle of New Orleans."
 (WSJ, 5/14/97, p.A20)(AP, 1/8/98)(HN, 1/8/99)(WSJ, 1/26/00, p.A20)

1815  Jan 11, Sir John A. Macdonald, the first prime minister of Canada, was born in Glasgow, Scotland.
 (AP, 1/11/98)

1815  Jan 21, Horace Wells (d.1845), dentist, was born. He pioneered the use of medical anesthesia and was the 1st to use nitrous oxide as a pain killer.
 (Dr, 7/17/01, p.2)(MC, 1/21/02)

1815  Jan 30, The burned Library of Congress was reestablished with Jefferson's 6,500 volumes.
 (MC, 1/30/02)

1815  Feb 3, World's 1st commercial cheese factory was established, in Switzerland.
 (MC, 2/3/02)

1815  Feb 6, The state of New Jersey issued the first American railroad charter to John Stevens, who proposed a rail link between Trenton and New Brunswick. The line, however, was never built.
 (AP, 2/6/97)

1815  Feb 11, News of the Treaty of Ghent, ending the War of 1812, finally reached the United States.
 (HN, 2/11/99)

1815  Feb 24, Robert Fulton (b.1765), steamboat pioneer, died at age 49. In 2001 Kirkpatrick Sale authored the biography: "The Fire of His Genius."
 (WSJ, 9/24/01, p.A22)(MC, 2/24/02)

1815  Feb 25, Napoleon left his exile on the Island of Elba, intending to return to France.
 (HN, 2/25/98)

1815  Feb 26, Napoleon, escaped from the Island of Elba, and 1,200 of his men started the 100-day re-conquest of France.
 (HN, 2/26/98)(AP, 2/26/98)

1815  Feb, Congress appropriated funds for the restoration of the White House and hired James Hoban, the original designer and builder, to do the work.
 (SFEC, 7/4/99, Par p.5)

1815  Mar 1, In France, returning from Elba, Napoleon landed at Cannes with a force of 1, 500 men and marched on Paris.
 (HN, 3/1/99)
1815  Mar 1, Sunday observance in Netherlands was regulated by law.
 (SC, 3/1/02)

1815  Mar 2, To put an end to robberies by the Barbary pirates, the United States declared war on Algiers.
 (HN, 3/2/99)

1815  Mar 5, Friedrich (Franz) Anton Mesmer (b.1734), German physician who pioneered the medical field of hypnotic therapy, died in obscurity in Meersburg, Swabia (now Germany). He was suspected of having seduced a pretty pianist while attempting to cure her blindness through hypnosis.
 (HN, 5/23/98)(WSJ, 5/30/00, p.A24)(MC, 3/5/02)

1815  Mar 20, Napoleon Bonaparte entered Paris, beginning his "Hundred Days" rule. He had escaped from his imprisonment on the island of Elba off the coast of Tuscany. He gathered his veterans and marched on Paris. At Waterloo, Belgium, he met the Duke of Wellington, commander of the allied anti-French forces and was resoundingly defeated. Napoleon was then imprisoned on the island of St. Helena in the south Atlantic. In 1997 Gregor Dallas published: The Final Act: The Roads to Waterloo." the book includes a good account of the Congress of Vienna.
 (AP, 3/20/97)(V.D.-H.K.p.232)(SFEC,11/2/97, Par p.10)(HN, 3/20/98)

1815  Apr 1, Otto von Bismarck (d.1898), German statesman, was born. He founded the German Empire and was the chancellor of Germany, the Second Reich, from 1866-90 [1971-1990]. The Iron Chancellor created the modern social insurance state when he introduced transfer payments to appease worker insecurities. "History is simply a piece of paper covered with print; the main thing is still to make history, not to write it." "Every man had his basic worth - from which must be subtracted his vanity.
 (WUD, 1994, p.151)(AP, 11/6/97)(WSJ, 4/24/98, p.A14)(SFEC, 3/7/99, Z1 p.8)(HN, 4/1/99)

1815  Apr 5, Mount Tambora on Sumbawa Island, Indonesia, in the Java Sea erupted. One-third of the 13,000 foot mountain was blasted into the air. 100,000 people were killed and the whole planet was shrouded in a debris of sulphuric droplets.
 (NOHY, Weiner, 3/90, p.41)(WUD, 1994, p.1423)(SFEC, 7/9/00, Z1 p.2)

1815  Apr 6, At Dartmoor Prison in southwest England 7 American prisoners were killed by British soldiers under the command of Captain Thomas G. Shortland. Some 6,000 prisoners were awaiting return to the US. A farmer’s jury with no victims or witnesses issued a verdict on April 8 of "justifiable homicide."
 (AH, 10/02, p.36)

1815  Apr 28, Andrew Jackson Smith (d.1897), Major General (Union volunteers), was born.
 (MC, 4/28/02)

1815  Apr 24, Anthony Trollope (d.1882), British novelist, was born. His 47 novels included "The American Senator." His 33rd novel was "The Way We Live Now." "Nobody holds a good opinion of a man who has a low opinion of himself." An essay by Cynthia Ozick on the novel is in her 1996 book "Fame and Folly."
 (WUD, 1994, p.1517)(WSJ, 5/22/96, p.A-18)(AP, 10/13/97)(WSJ, 6/9/00, p.W17)(HN, 4/24/01)

1915  Apr, Arthur R. Smith (20) auditioned to fly for the Panama-Pacific Expo in SF and performed 14 consecutive loop-the-loops. He painted each loop with a stream of gray smoke. He died in 1926 while testing a new airplane on a night flight from Chicago to Bryan.
 (Ind, 9/5/98, p.5A)

1815  May 5, Eugene-Marin Labiche, French playwright, was born.
 (MC, 5/5/02)

1815  May 29, Cornelis de Gijselaar (64), politician, patriot, died.
 (SC, 5/29/02)

1815  Jun 16, Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the Battle of Ligny, Netherlands.
 (HN, 6/16/98)
1815  Jun 16, A French attack at the crossroads called Quatre Bras badly mauled the British army, but failed to rout it or to take the crossroads. Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte had marched into Belgium to find himself confronted by two allied armies, which he tried to split apart. Although similarly battered at Ligny that day, the Prussian army also retired intact. Both armies would face Napoleon again two days later at Waterloo.
 (HNPD, 6/16/99)

1815  Jun 18, British and Prussian troops under the Duke of Wellington defeated Napoleon Bonaparte and his forces at the Battle of Waterloo in Belgium. The French elite troops of the Imperial Gueard wore bearskins to appear more intimidating. Afterwards Britain established towering bear skin hats for soldiers in ceremonial duties and to guard royal residencies and the Tower of London. Field Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blucher made a short speech to his troops saying that he was pregnant and about to give birth to an elephant. He was taken from the front in protective custody and missed the battle. In 2002 Andrew Roberts authored "Napoleon and Wellington."
 (AP, 6/18/97)(SFC, 8/14/97, p.C5)(HN, 6/18/98)(SFEC, 2/28/99, Z1p.10)(WSJ, 9/13/02, p.W10)

1815  Jun 22, Napoleon Bonaparte abdicated a second time.
 (AP, 6/22/97)

1815  Jun 30, US naval hero Stephen Decatur ended attacks by Algerian pirates. Commodores Stephen Decatur and William Bainbridge conducted successful operations against the Barbary States of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli. [See Aug 5]
 (WSJ, 10/9/01, p.A22)(MC, 6/30/02)

1815  Jun, The Congress of Vienna ended.
 (WUD, 1994, p.1677)

1815  Jul 7, After defeating Napoleon at Waterloo, the victorious Allies marched into Paris.
 (HN, 7/7/98)

1815  Jul 8, With Napoleon defeated, Louis XVIII returned to Paris.
 (HN, 7/8/98)

1815  Jul 9, The 1st US natural gas well was discovered.
 (MC, 7/9/02)
1815  Jul 9, King Louis XVIII left Ghent for France.
 (MC, 7/9/02)

1815  Jul 15, Napoleon Bonaparte was captured and exiled to St Helena. [see Jul 17]
 (MC, 7/15/02)

1815  Jul 17, Napoleon Bonaparte surrendered to the British at Rochefort, France.
 (HN, 7/17/98)

1815  Aug 5, A peace treaty with Tripoli—which followed treaties with Algeria and Tunis—brought an end to the Barbary Wars.
 (HN, 8/5/98)

1815  Aug 8, Napoleon Bonaparte set sail for St. Helena, in the South Atlantic, to spend the remainder of his days in exile.
 (AP, 8/8/97)

1815  Sep 8, Alexander Ramsey (d.1903), Gov (Union), was born.
 (MC, 9/8/01)

1815  Sep 9, John Singleton Copley, artist, died at 77.
 (MC, 9/9/01)

1815  Sep 26, Russia, Prussia and Austria sign a Holy Alliance. "Justice, charity and peace" were to be the precepts that guided the Holy Alliance as envisioned by Czar Alexander I of Russia. The alliance of Russia, Austria and Prussia was formed after the downfall of Napoleon and later all European rulers signed the agreement except the prince regent of Great Britain, the pope and the sultan of Turkey. With no specific aims beyond mutual assistance, the provisions of the Holy Alliance were so vague that it had little effect on European diplomacy.
 (MC, 9/26/01)(HNQ, 7/7/98)

1815  Sep 28, Joachim Murat's fleet sailed from Corsica to Naples.
 (MC, 9/28/01)

1815  Oct 7, Marshal Ney, one of Napoleon’s most trusted field commanders, was condemned to death and shot for having left the services of the King.
 (HN, 10/7/98)

1815  Oct 8, General Joachim Murat's forces landed at Pizzo, Italy.
 (MC, 10/8/01)

1815  Oct 13, Joachim Murat, marshal of France and King of Naples (1808-15), was executed.
 (MC, 10/13/01)

1815  Oct 17, Napoleon (d.1821) arrived in St. Helena.
 (MC, 10/17/01)

1815  Oct 29, Daniel Decatur Emmett, the composer of "Dixie," which became the unofficial national anthem of the Confederacy during the American Civil War, was born in Mount Vernon, Ohio. Organizer of one of the first minstrel shows, "Dixie" was written in 1859 as a concluding number, or "walk-around," for a minstrel show. Emmett died on June 28, 1904.
 (HNQ, 3/21/99)

1815  Oct 31, Sir Humphrey Davy of London patented miner's safety lamp after being hired by the Society for Preventing Accidents in Coal Mines.
 (MC, 10/31/01)(ON, 12/01, p.7)

1815  Nov 1, Crawford Williamson Long, surgeon and pioneer (use of ether), was born.
 (MC, 11/1/01)

1815  Nov 2, George Boole (d.1864), English-Irish mathematician and logician (Boolean algebra), was born.
 (WUD, 1994, p.170)(SFC, 12/2/97, p.C3)(MC, 11/2/01)

1815  Nov 3, Adrien Louis Victor Boieldieu, composer, was born.
 (MC, 11/3/01)

1815   Nov 12, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, a social reformer and militant feminist, was born in Johnstown, New York, and graduated from the Troy Female Seminary in 1832. She worked closely with Susan B. Anthony and served as president of the National Woman Suffrage Association. She died on October 26, 1902. She said, "The male element is a destructive force" in an address to the Women’s Suffrage Convention in Washington, D.C. in 1868.
 (AP, 11/12/97)(HNQ, 5/17/98)

1815  Nov 15, John Banvard, painter of the world’s largest painting (3 mile canvas), was born in NYC.
 (MC, 11/15/01)

1815  Nov 20, With the 2nd Peace of Paris Napoleon was involuntarily exiled to St. Helena.
 (MC, 11/20/01)

1815  Nov 25, Johann Peter Saloman (70), composer, died.
 (MC, 11/25/01)

1815  Nov 27, Cracow, Poland, declared itself a free republic.
 (MC, 11/27/01)

1815  Nov 28, Johann Peter Salomon (70), composer, died.
 (MC, 11/28/01)

1815  Dec 10, Ada Lovelace (d. Nov 27, 1852), Lord Byron’s daughter and the inventor of computer language, was born. In 1998 the sci-fi film, "Conceiving Ada," was directed by Lynn Hershman-Leeson.
 (SFC, 1/22/98, p.D7)(SFC, 4/30/98, p.E1)

1815  Dec 22, Spaniards executed Mexican revolutionary priest Jose Maria Morelos.
 (MC, 12/22/01)

1815  Dec 31, George Gordon Meade (d.1872), Union general, was born. He defeated Robert E. Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg.
 (HN, 12/31/99)(MC, 12/31/01)

1815  Adolph Menzel (d.1905), German painter, was born. He combined elements of many styles and was considered the greatest artist in Germany at the time and was Prussia’s foremost historical artist. He was considered Germany’s French Impressionist.
 (WSJ, 10/8/96, p.A20)(WSJ, 7/16/98, p.A16)

1815  J.M.W. Turner made paintings in this summer renowned for their red skies. The coloration was due to the April 5 eruption of Mt. Tambora in Indonesia.
 (SFEC, 7/9/00, Z1 p.2)

1815  Nathaniel Coverly Jr. and ghostwriter Nathaniel Hill Wright published a fictitious narrative of the adventures of Lucy Brewer, a "Female Marine" who disguised herself as a sailor and served as a marine in the War of 1812.
 (WSJ, 2/22/00, p.A20)

1815  John Roulstone of Sterling, Mass., penned the first 3 stanzas of the poem "Mary Had a Little Lamb" after his classmate Mary Sawyer came to school followed by her pet lamb.
 (SFC, 8/24/98, p.B6)

1815  William Smith (d.1839), British geologist, made the 1st geological map of England and became impoverished in the process. In 2001 Simon Winchester authored "The Map That Changed the World."
 (RTH, 8/28/99)(WSJ, 8/17/01, p.W6)(SSFC, 8/26/01, DB p.86)

1815  The San Francisco de Asis church de Taos, New Mexico, was completed and still operates today as a parish church. It is one of the 6 adobe missions scattered along the western shoulder of the Sangre de Cristo mountains between Taos and Santa Fe, New Mexico.
 (AWAM, Dec. 94, p.68)(SFC, 5/12/96, p.T-5)

1815  Commodores Stephen Decatur and William Bainbridge conducted successful operations against the Barbary States of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli.
 (WSJ, 10/9/01, p.A22)

1815  Mackinaw Island, Michigan, was permanently signed over to the US.
 (SSFC, 7/27/03, p.C5)

1815  Authorities in Milan issued an edict that forbade gambling in the back rooms of the opera houses including La Scala.
 (Civil., Jul-Aug., ‘95, p.88)

1815  The city-state of Geneva, briefly the capital of the Kingdom of Burgundy, and then a republic, became part of the Confederation of Switzerland.
 (Hem., 1/96, p.81)

1815  The British Foreign Secretary, Lord Castlereagh, warned the Prime Minister, Lord Liverpool, that Czar Alexander must be watched and resisted just like Napoleon.
 (WSJ, 7/10/96, p.A16)

1815  Britain passed a law severely restricting grain imports from European neighbors. Austria retaliated with tariffs on wool and cotton. Sicily raised tariffs on textiles, Sweden raised tariffs on silk, wool, cotton, iron steel and copper. English manufacturers formed the anti-Corn-Law League to lobby against the measure.
 (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R50)

1815  Britain took action against pirate sheikhs protected by the Wahabis, later rulers of Saudi Arabia, because ships of the East India Company were attacked in int’l. waters. Britain allied with the ruler of Muscat and Oman and Mohamed Ali of Egypt.
 (WSJ, 10/9/01, p.A22)

1815  The first New England missionaries arrived on Maui.
 (SFEM, 10/10/99, p.40)

1815  Giovanni Battista Belzoni, Italian hydraulic engineer and vaudeville entertainer, arrived in Egypt and began to search for tombs of pharaohs.
 (NG, 9/98, p.19)

1815  As part of the post-Napoleonic settlement at the Congress of Vienna, most of Lithuania was absorbed by Russia.
 (Compuserve, Online Encyclopedia)

1815  Switzerland became officially neutral.
 (SFC, 6/7/96, p.A12)

1815-1820 The current Mission Santa Barbara in Santa Barbara, Ca. was built around an earlier structure damaged by earthquake. It is the 10th of California’s 21 missions and is the only one with twin towers.
 (AWAM, Dec. 94, p.66)

1815-1862 Edwin P. Christy, originator of the popular Negro minstrel shows.
 (BAAC PN, Chambers, 1/8/96)

1815-1864 Eliza Farnham, American reformer: "The ultimate aim of the human mind, in all its efforts, is to become acquainted with Truth."
 (AP, 11/23/98)

1815-1882 Richard Henry Dana, US jurist, author and sailor. He wrote "Two years Before the Mast."
 (WUD, 1994, p.366)(SFEC, 2/9/97, p.W5)

1816  Jan 12, France decreed the Bonaparte family to be excluded from the country forever.
 (MC, 1/12/02)

1816  Feb 5, Gioachino Rossini's Opera "Barber of Seville" premiered in Rome.
 (MC, 2/5/02)

1816  Feb 13-14, Teatro San Carlo in Naples was destroyed by fire.
 (MC, 2/13/02)

1816  Mar 6, Jews were expelled from Free city of Lubeck, Germany.
 (MC, 3/6/02)

1816  Mar 20, the U.S. Supreme Court, in Martin vs. Hunter’s Lessee, affirmed its right to review state court decisions.
 (AP, 3/20/97)

1816  Apr 21, Charlotte Bronte (d.1855), English novelist, writer of "Vilette" and "Jane Eyre," was born in Thornton, England. "Better to be without logic than without feeling." In 1999 Brian Wilks published "Charlotte in Love: The Courtship and Marriage of Charlotte Bronte."
 (WP, 1952, p.37)(AP, 9/13/99)(HN, 4/21/98)(WSJ, 7/28/99, p.A21)

1816  May 12, Lord Grimthorpe was born. He was the designer of "Big Ben," the most recognized structure in London.
 (HN, 5/12/99)

1816  May 24, Emanuel Leutze, US painter, was born. His work included  "Washington Crossing the Delaware" (1851).
 (MC, 5/24/02)

1816  Jun 6, 10" snowfall in New England, "year without a summer" (Krakatoa volcano). The oceanographer Henry Stommel and his wife Elizabeth described this year in their (1983) book "Volcano Weather: The Story of 1816, The year Without a Summer." The 1815 eruption of Mt. Tambora lofted a cloud of ash that turned this summer into a virtual winter with snow in Europe and New England.
 (NOHY, 3/90, p.130)(SFC, 5/19/97, p.D1)(MC, 6/6/02)

1816  Jul 3, Dorothea Jordan (65), French actress, mistress (William IV), died.
 (MC, 7/3/02)

1816  Jul 6, Philipp Meissner (67), composer, died.
 (MC, 7/6/02)

1816  Jul 9, Argentina declared independence from Spain. Argentina assumed that the Malvina Islands were included.
 (AP, 7/9/97)(SFC, 6/19/98, p.A12)

1816  Jul 11(Jun 11), Gas Light Co. of Baltimore was founded.
 (MC, 7/11/02)

1816  Jul 21, Paul Julius Baron von Reuter, founder of the British news agency bearing his name, was born in Hesse, Germany.
 (AP, 7/21/99)(MC, 7/21/02)

1816  Jul 31, George Henry Thomas (d.1870), Union general in the Civil War whose bravery at the battle of Chickamauga earned him the nickname "the Rock of Chickamauga," was born.
 (HN, 7/31/98)(MC, 7/31/02)

1816  Aug 27, Lord Exmouth bombed Algiers, a refuge for Barbary pirates.
 (MC, 8/27/01)

1816  Sep 5, Louis XVIII of France dissolved the chamber of deputies, which had been challenging his authority.
 (HN, 9/5/98)

1816  Sep 12, Russian agents commenced construction of a Western-style fortress commanding Waimea Bay on the island of Kauai, named Fort Elizabeth after the Russian czarina. Before the fort was completed, Hawaiian King Kamehameha acted to force the Russians out. The Hawaiians finished construction of the fort and renamed it Fort Hipo.
 (HNQ, 6/5/99)

1816  Oct 7, The 1st double decked steamboat, Washington, arrived in New Orleans.
 (MC, 10/7/01)

1816  Nov 3, Jubal Anderson Early (d.1891), Lt. General (Confederate Army), was born.
 (MC, 11/3/01)

1816  Dec 2, The first savings bank in the United States, the Philadelphia Savings Fund Society, opened for business.
 (AP, 12/2/99)

1816  Dec 4, James Monroe of Virginia was elected the fifth president of the United States. He defeated Federalist Rufus King.
 (AP, 12/4/97)(MC, 12/4/01)

1816  Dec 11, Indiana became the 19th state.
 (AP, 12/11/97)

1816  Dec 13, E. Werner von Siemens, German artillery officer and inventor, was born.
 (MC, 12/13/01)
1816  Dec 13, Patent for a dry dock was issued to John Adamson in Boston.
 (MC, 12/13/01)

1816  Jacques Louis David (1748-1825) painted the portrait: "Comte Henri-Amedee de Turenne".
 (WUD, 1994 p.369)

1816  Caspar David Friedrich, German romantic artist, painted "View of a Harbor." It was soon purchased by Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia as a birthday present for the crown prince.
 (WSJ, 1/3/97, p.A7)

1816  William Smith published his "Strata identified by Organized Fossils."
 (RFH-MDHP, p.70)

1816  William Cullen Bryant, James Fennimore Cooper, and Washington Irving were popular writers of this period.
 (A&IP, ESM, p.34)

1816  Jane Austin completed her last novel, "Persuasion." In 1995 it was made into a film by a British company.
 (WSJ, 10/6/95, p.A-8)

1816  Gioachino Rossini composed his opera "Otello."
 (SI-WPC, 1997)(SFC, 1/29/00, p.E3)(WSJ, 8/1/01, p.A12)

1816  The American Bible Society was founded. The first president was Elias Boudinot. He was succeeded by his vice president John Jay. In 1998 its library had 53,000 copies of the Bible in over 2,000 languages and dialects.
 (WSJ, 8/7/98, p.W13)

1816  Elijah Goodridge of Newbury, Massachusetts, was tried for committing robbery on his own person and then having Ebenezer Pearson arrested for the crime.
 (LSA., Fall 1995, p.22)

1816  The US passed the first tariff to protect its industries.
 (A&IP, ESM, p.34)

1816  Indiana was admitted to the Union.
 (A&IP, ESM, p.34)

1816  Pittsburgh was incorporated on the site of old Fort Pitt.
 (SFC, 1/29/00, p.E3)

1816  Medical records from upstate NY showed that a patient paid 25 cents to have a tooth pulled and $1.25 to have a baby.
 (SFEC, 6/27/99, Z1 p.8)

1816  The California poppy was correctly described and named by Adelbert von Chamisso, a native Frenchmen driven to Germany by the revolution. He was appointed naturalist with the Russian scientific and trapping voyage of Kotzebue and developed an intimate relationship with the ship’s surgeon, Dr. Johann Frederich Eschscholtz, for whom he named the San Francisco poppy, Eschscholzia californica. [see 1792,1794, 1825-1833]
 (NBJ, 2/96, p.12)

1816  Gouverneur Morris (b.1752), chief writer of the US Constitution (1787), died at Morrisania, NY. In 2003 Richard Brookhiser authored "Gentleman Revolutionary," a biography of Morris.
 (WSJ, 5/28/03, p.D8)

1816  Beau Brummell, English dandy, first sought obscurity to escape his creditors.
 (SFC, 1/29/00, p.E3)

1816  Lord Byron, English romantic poet, separated from his wife Annabella (d.1860) following an incestuous relationship with his half-sister Augusta Leigh (d.1851). In 2002 David Crane authored "The Kindness of Sisters: Annabella Milbanke and the Destruction of the Byrons."
 (SSFC, 10/27/02, p.M2)

1816  Lord Elgin sold his Parthenon sculptures to the British government for 35,000 pounds. A request in 1811 for 62,400 pounds had been rejected. Elgin later fled to France to avoid his creditors.
 (ON, 11/99, p.4)

1816  In France Dr. Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec invented the stethoscope.
 (ON, 9/00, p.11)

1816  In France  Joseph N. Niepce developed the first photographic negative. His earliest recorded image, an 1825 print of a man leading a horse, sold for $443,220 in 2002.
 (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)(SFC, 7/14/99, p.4)(SFC, 3/22/02, p.A2)

1816  In Germany Johann Maelzel patented the metronome a couple of years after it was drawn up by Dutch inventor Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel.
 (SFC, 1/29/00, p.E3)

1816  Saartjie Baartman (~27), taken from S. Africa in 1810, fell sick and died penniless and friendless in France after being exhibited as the "Hottentot Venus." Her body was dissected, her brain and genitals were bottled, and her skeleton was wired and exhibited in the Musee de l’Homme in Paris. In 2002 her remains were returned to S. Africa.
 (SFC, 5/4/02, p.A8)

1816  Mohammed Ali Pasha, Ottoman ruler over Egypt, sent Fredric Cailliaud, a French goldsmith and mineralogist, to find the Roman emerald mines of southeastern Egypt.
 (AM, 5/01, p.A38)

1816-1841 Ellen Sturgis Hooper, American poet: "I slept, and dreamed that life was Beauty; I woke, and found that life was Duty."
 (AP, 8/5/00)

1816-1865 C.J. Thomsen, curator during these years of the Museum of Northern Antiquities (later the Danish National Museum), formulates the three age system, from stone to bronze to iron. He was probably helped in his ideas by the work of Goguet.
 (RFH-MDHP,1969, p.13)

1816-1876 Charlotte Saunders Cushman, American actress: "To me it seems as if when God conceived the world, that was Poetry; He formed it, and that was Sculpture; He colored it, and that was Painting; He peopled it with living beings, and that was the grand, divine, eternal Drama."
 (AP, 11/7/98)

1816-1899 P.J. von Reuter, founder of Reuter’s Telegraph Agency.
 (Voruta #27-28, Jul 1996, p.4)

1817  Jan 18, San Martin led a revolutionary army over Andes.
 (MC, 1/18/02)

1817  Jan 25, Giocchino Rossini's opera "La Cenerentola" premiered in Rome. It was based on the Cinderella story.
 (WSJ, 11/2/95, p.A-12)(MC, 1/25/02)

1817  Feb 2, John Glover, English chemist (sulphuric acid), was born.
 (MC, 2/2/02)

1817  Feb 8, Richard Stoddert Ewell (d.1872(), Lt Gen (Confederate Army), was born.
 (MC, 2/8/02)

1817  Feb 12, Under the leadership of Bernardo O‘Higgins, Chile gained its independence from Spain in 1817, when a combined Argentine and Chilean army defeated the Spaniards. O‘Higgins went on to become head of state on February 17, supported by the army but not favored by the oligarchy because he sought abolition of their privileges. Once the threat from Spain was eliminated from the region, opposition to O‘Higgins mounted. General unrest and a poor harvest combined to force O‘Higgins to abdicate his position in 1823.
 (HNQ, 9/1/99)

1817  Feb 14, Frederick Douglass (d.1895), "The Great Emancipator," was born as Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey. He was the son of a slave and a white father who bought his own freedom and published The Narrative Life of Frederick Douglass, a memoir of his life as a slave. "The life of the nation is secure only while the nation is honest, truthful, and virtuous."
 (AHD, 1971, p.394)(HN, 2/14/99)(AP, 2/20/99)

1817  Feb 17, A street in Baltimore became the first to be lighted with gas from America’s first gas company.
 (AP, 2/17/98)

1817  Feb 18, Lewis Addison Armistead (d.1863), Brig General (Confederate Army), was born. He died leading "Pickett's Charge" on the final day of the Gettysburg battle.
 (MC, 2/18/02)
1817  Feb 18, Walter Page Lane (d.1892), Brig General (Confederate Army), was born.
 (MC, 2/18/02)

1817  Feb 19, William III, King of the Netherlands, was born.
 (HN, 2/20/98)

1817  Mar 2, The 1st US Evangelical church building was dedicated in New Berlin, PA.
 (SC, 3/2/02)

1817  Mar 3, Mississippi Territory was divided into Alabama Territory and Mississippi.
 (SC, 3/3/02)
1817  Mar 3, The first commercial steamboat route from Louisville to New Orleans was opened.
 (HN, 3/3/99)

1817  Mar 22, Braxton Bragg (d.1876), Gen (Confederate Army), was born.
 (MC, 3/22/02)

1817  Mar 25, Tsar Alexander I recommended the formation of Society of Israeli Christians.
 (MC, 3/25/02)

1817  Apr 15, The first American school for the deaf opened in Hartford, Conn.
 (AP, 4/15/97)

1817  Apr 17, 1st US school for deaf  was founded in Hartford, Conn.
 (MC, 4/17/02)

1817  Apr 18, George Henry Lewes, philosophical writer, was born.
 (HN, 4/18/98)

1817  Jul 12, Henry David Thoreau (d.1862), essayist, naturalist and poet, was born in Concord, Mass. His work included "On Walden Pond." He referred to the three Greek goddesses of fate: Clotho (spinner of the thread of destiny), Lachesis (disposer of lots) and especially Atropos (who holds the scissors that will cut endeavor short). "We have constructed a fate, an Atropos, that never turns aside." He was also the author of the essays "Civil Disobedience and Slavery in Massachusetts."
 (AHD, p.1339)(Civil., Jul-Aug., '95, p.66)(HFA, '96, p.34)(HN, 7/12/98)

1817  Jul 18 Jane Austen (b.1775), English writer, died at age 41.
 (SFEC,11/9/97, BR p.3)(MC, 7/18/02)

1817  Sep 21, Carter Littlepage Stevenson, Major General (Confederate Army), was born.
 (MC, 9/21/01)

1817  Sep 23, Leon Charles Francois Kreutzer, composer, was born.
 (MC, 9/23/01)

1817  Oct 13, William Kirby, Canadian writer, was born.
 (HN, 10/13/00)

1817  Oct 15, Tadeusz AB Kosciusko (b.1746), Polish Lt-Gen. and American Revolution freedom fighter, died.
 (MC, 10/15/01)

1817  Oct 19, Tom Taylor, British playwright, was born. His play "Our American Cousin" was being performed at Ford’s Theater when President Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Boothe.
 (HN, 10/19/98)

1817  Oct 20, The 1st Mississippi "Showboat," left Nashville on maiden voyage.
 (MC, 10/20/01)

1817  Oct, Pres. and Mrs. James Monroe moved back into the restored White House.
 (SFEC, 7/4/99, Par p.5)

1817  Nov 8, Andrea Appiana (63), Italian royal painter of Napoleon, died.
 (MC, 11/8/01)

1817  Nov 9, Edward Richard Sprigg Canby, Major General (Union volunteers), was born.
 (MC, 11/9/01)

1817  Nov 12, Mirza Hoseyn 'Ali Nuri (Baha' Ullah), founder of the Baha'i faith, was born.
 (HN, 11/12/00)

1817  Nov 20, 1st Seminole War began in Florida. [see Nov 27]
 (MC, 11/20/01)

1817  Nov 21, Richard Brooke Garnett (d1863), Brig General (Confederate Army), was born. He died at Gettysburg.
 (MC, 11/21/01)

1817  Nov 22, Fredric Cailliaud discovered the old Roman emerald mines at Sikait, Egypt.
 (AM, 5/01, p.39)

1817  Nov 27, US soldiers attacked a Florida Indian village and began the Seminole War. [see Nov 20]
 (MC, 11/27/01)

1817  Nov, William Wirt was selected as the attorney general. He served for 11 years and 3 months.
 (SFC, 1/11/99, p.A5)

1817  Dec 7, William Bligh (63), British naval officer of "Bounty" infamy, died.
 (MC, 12/7/01)

1817  Dec 10, Mississippi was admitted as the 20th state of the Union.
 (HFA, ‘96, p.44)(AP, 12/10/97)

1817  Dec 28, Benjamin Robert Haydon (d.1846), British painter, threw a dinner party in London to show his nearly completed painting "Christ’s Entry Into Jerusalem" and to introduce poet John Keats to William Wordsworth. Other guests included essayist Charles Lamb. In 2002 Penelope Hughes-Hallett authored "The Immortal Dinner."
 (WSJ, 9/13/02, p.W10)

1817  John Bradbury, Scottish naturalist, authored "Travels in the Interior of America in the Years 1809, 1810 and 1811."
 (ON, 10/99, p.6)

1817  William Hazlitt, the finest of the romantic critics, published "Characters of Shakespeare’s Plays."
 (WSJ, 10/23/98, p.W8)

1817  Dr. William Kitchiner authored his cookbook "Apicius Redivivus, or the Cook's Oracle." It included 11 ketchup recipes, including 2 each for mushroom, walnut and tomato ketchups, and one each for cucumber, oyster and cockles and mussels ketchups.
 (SFC, 8/27/03, p.E4)

1817  David Ricardo published "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation." In this he argued for the labor theory of value.
 (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20)

1817  The multi-volume "Flora Brasiliensis" was commissioned by Maximilian I of Austria. The definitive volume on Brazilian botany was completed in 1906.
 (WSJ, 7/7/98, p.A14)

1817   Work began on the Erie Canal, more properly named the New York State Barge Canal. The canal connected Lake Erie with the Hudson and opened on October 26, 1825. The canal was proposed by NY Gov. Dewitt Clinton and detractors called it "Clinton's Folly." Workers were paid a quart of whiskey a day plus $1. [see 1826]
 (WSJ, 7/3/96, p.A8)(HN, 7/4/98)(IB, Internet, 12/7/98)(SFEC, 12/27/98, Z1 p.8)(SFEC, 1/31/99, Z1 p.8)

1817  The Univ. of Michigan was founded by a Presbyterian minister, John Monteith, and a Catholic priest, Gabriel Richard and Judge Gus Woodward. The Univ. of Michigan was established by a Michigan Public Act under a Board of Regents.
 (MT, 12/94, p.2-3) (LSA., Fall 1995, p.10)(MT, Fall ‘96, p.10)

1817  Tuscumbia, Alabama was founded by the US government.
 (Postcard, Polychrome Picture Products)

1817  The New York Stock and Exchange Board (NYSE) was formalized and established its first quarters in a rented room at 40 Wall St.
 (SFC, 4/23/98, p.D2)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R43)

1817  Frederick Eberle was tried for illegally conspiring to prevent the introduction of the English language into German Lutheran church services in Philadelphia.
 (LSA., Fall 1995, p.22)

1817  The Metropolitan Cathedral in Mexico City was completed.
 (Hem., 1/96, p.49)

1817  In Egypt Giovanni Battista Belzoni discovered the tomb of Seti I.
 (NG, 9/98, p.19)

1817  Spain formally accepted the principle to abolish slavery.
 (WSJ, 12/16/97, p.A18)

1817-1819 Titian Ramsey Peale was curator at the Academy of natural Sciences in Philadelphia; and again from 1825-1931. He helped amass one of the largest and earliest systematic collections of insects in the US. He invented special book boxes for mounting moths and butterflies between sheets of glass.
 (NH, 7/96, p.4)

c1817-1924 Pierre Joseph Redoute printed "Les Roses."
 (SFEM, 4/6/97, p.16)

1817-1825 James Monroe became the 5th President of the US. [see 1758-1831, Monroe]
 (A&IP, ESM, p.96b, photo)(WUD, 1994, p.927)

1818  Jan 1, An official reopening of the White House took place after being repaired from burning by British during War of 1812.
 (MC, 1/1/02)

1818  Jan 2, Lord Byron completed "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage" (4th canto).
 (MC, 1/2/02)

1818  Feb 7, The first successful U.S. educational magazine, Academician, began publication in New York City.
 (HN, 2/7/99)

1818  Feb 11, In Louisiana sugar plantation owner Levi Foster sold to his in-laws the slaves named Kit (28) for $975 and Alick (9) for $400. In 2000 Gwendolyn Midlo Hall and LSU Press published a CD-ROM database on Louisiana slave transactions: "Databases for the Study of Afro-Louisiana History and Genealogy, 1699-1860: Computerized Information from Original Manuscript Sources."
 (SFEC, 7/30/00, p.)(www.afrigeneas.com)

1818  Feb 12, Chile gained independence from Spain. [see Feb 12, 1817]
 (HN, 2/12/97)

1818  Mar 28, Wade Hampton (d.1902), Confederate general, was born.
 (HN, 3/28/98)(MC, 3/28/02)
1818  Mar 28, Giuseppe Antonio Capuzzi (62), composer, died.
 (MC, 3/28/02)

1818  Apr 4, Congress decided the flag of the United States would consist of 13 red and white stripes and 20 stars, with a new star to be added for every new state of the Union.
 (AP, 4/4/97)(HN, 4/4/98)

1818  Apr 7, Gen. Andrew Jackson captured St. Marks, Fla., from the Seminole Indians.
 (MC, 4/7/02)

1818  Apr 14, The US Medical Corp. formed.
 (MC, 4/14/02)

1818  Apr 16, U.S. Senate ratified the Rush-Bagot amendment to form an unarmed U.S.-Canada border. The Rush-Bagot Agreement between Great Britain and the U.S. had to do with mutual disarmament on the Great Lakes. In the exchange of notes between British minister to the U.S. Charles Bagot and Richard Rush, Acting Secretary of State, the countries agreed to limits on their inland naval forces. A sequel to the Treaty of Ghent, the agreement was approved by the U.S. Senate on April 16, 1818.
 (HN, 4/16/98)(HNQ, 6/7/00)

1818  Apr 18, A regiment of Indians and blacks was defeated at the Battle of Suwanna, in Florida, ending the first Seminole War.
 (HN, 4/18/99)

1818  Apr 28, President Monroe proclaimed naval disarmament on the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain.
 (HN, 4/28/98)

1818  Apr 29, Alexander II, Tsar of Russia (1855-1881), was born.
 (HN, 4/29/98)(MC, 4/29/02)

1818  May 5, Karl Marx, German philosopher, was born in Prussia. He argued that history was marked by various stages of class struggle and capitalism which had overcome feudalism would in turn be overcome by socialism and the elimination of private property. He and Friedrich Engels founded Communism (1847). Together they wrote "The Communist Manifesto" and "Das Capital."
 (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R20)(AP, 5/5/97)(HN, 5/5/99)

1818  May 10, American patriot Paul Revere died in Boston. Revere, best known for his midnight ride, fathered 16 children-eight by his first wife Sarah Orne and eight by his second wife, Rachel Walker. Born on January 1, 1735, to Apollos Rivoire and Deborah Hitchbourne, Paul Revere was one of 13 children.
 (AP, 5/10/97)(HNQ, 7/26/99)

1818  May 20, William George Fargo, one of the founders of Wells, Fargo & Co., actor, was born.
 (HN, 5/20/98)

1818  May 24, Gen. Andrew Jackson captured Pensacola, Florida.
 (MC, 5/24/02)

1818  May 25, Jacob Christoph Burckhardt (d.1897), Swiss cultural historian, was born. "The people no longer believe in principles, but will probably periodically believe in saviors." "Neither in the life of the individual nor in that of mankind is it desirable to know the future."
 (AP, 5/6/98)(AP, 6/11/98)(SC, 5/25/02)

1818  May 27, Amelia Jenks Bloomer (d.1894), American reformer who popularized the "bloomers" garment that bears her name, was born in Homer, N.Y. Amelia Jenks Bloomer, Seneca Falls, N.Y., was the editor of The Lily, a periodical "devoted to the interests of women. "Along with her support of woman suffrage and temperance, Bloomer was an advocate of dress reform. Believing that restrictive corsets and cumbersome skirts were injurious to the health of women, in the 1850s Bloomer designed and often wore a comfortable costume of a short skirt worn over baggy trousers drawn tight at the ankle. Bloomer’s costume, portrayed in this Currier and Ives print, became so controversial that any reasonable talk of dress reform was drowned out by the jeers. Finally, Elizabeth Cady Stanton advised bloomer advocates to abandon the costume. It was not until the 1930s and 40s that women began wearing pants, although bloomers were the inspiration for early bicycling and beach apparel.
 (AP, 5/27/99)(HNPD, 9/9/98)

1818  May 28, P.G.T. Beauregard, Confederate general, was born. He first fired on Fort Sumpter and fought at First Manassas, and Shiloh.
 (HN, 5/28/99)

1818  Jun 2, The British army defeated the Maratha alliance in Bombay, India.
 (HN, 6/2/98)

1818  Jun 10, Pesaro opera theater opened with Rossini's "La Gaza Ladra."
 (MC, 6/10/02)

1818  Jun 17, Charles Francois Gounod, opera composer of "Faust" and "Romeo et Juliette," was born in Paris, France.
 (MC, 6/17/02)

1818  Jul 1, Ignaz Semmelweis, gynecologist, was born.
 (MC, 7/1/02)

1818  Jul 30, Emily Bronte (d.1848), English author of "Wuthering Heights," was born. She was the younger sister of Charlotte Bronte and died of tuberculosis.
 (WP, 1952, p.38)(HN, 7/30/98)(WSJ, 7/28/99, p.A21)

1818  Aug 1, Maria Mitchell (d.1889), the first female astronomer in the U.S., was born. She discovered a comet in 1847 and was the first prof. of astronomy at Vassar College. In 1869 she was the first woman elected to the American Philosophical Society.
 (Alg, 1990, p.30)(HN, 8/1/00)

1818  Aug 13, Suffragist Lucy Stone, women’s rights activist, founder of Woman’s Journal, was born in West Brookfield, Mass.
 (AP, 8/13/97)(HN, 8/13/98)

1818  Aug 28, Jean Baptiste Pointe du Sable, trader, founder of Chicago, died.
 (MC, 8/28/01)

1818  Sep 11, Richard Gatling (d.1903), American inventor, was born. The Gatling gun, an early type of machine gun (1862), was named after him.
 (WUD, 1994, p.587)(MC, 9/11/01)

1818  Oct 8, 2 English boxers were 1st to use padded gloves.
 (MC, 10/8/01)

1818  Oct 15, Irvin McDowell (d.1985), Major General (Union volunteers), was born.
 (MC, 10/15/01)

1818  Oct 19, US and Chickasaw Indians signed a treaty.
 (MC, 10/19/01)

1818  Oct 20, The United States and Britain established the 49th Parallel as the boundary between Canada and the United States.
 (HN, 10/20/98)

1818  Oct 22, Leconte de Lisle, writer, was born.
 (MC, 10/22/01)

1818  Oct 24, Felix Mendelssohn (9) performed his 1st public concert in Berlin.
 (MC, 10/24/01)

1818  Oct 28, Ivan Turgenev (d.1883), Russian novelist, poet, playwright (Fathers & Sons), was born. [see Nov 9]
 (MC, 10/28/01)

1818  Nov 1, James Renwick, architect, was born. His work included St. Patrick’s Cathedral in NYC.
 (HN, 11/1/00)

1818  Nov 5, Benjamin Franklin ("Beast") Butler (d.1893), Maj. General (Union volunteers), was born.
 (MC, 11/5/01)

1818  Nov 9, Ivan Turgenev, Russian author, was born. His work includes "Fathers and Sons" and "A Month in the Country." [see Oct 28]
 (HN, 11/9/00)

1818  Nov 21, Russia's Czar Alexander I petitioned for a Jewish state in Palestine.
 (MC, 11/21/01)

1818  Dec 3, Illinois was admitted as the 21st state.
 (AP, 12/3/97)(HN, 12/3/98)

1818  Dec 13, Mary Todd Lincoln, wife of President Abraham Lincoln, was born.
 (HN, 12/13/98)

1818  Dec 14, The pirate Hippolyte Bouchard demanded gunpowder and other supplies from the padres at Mission San Juan Capistrano, Ca. The padres refused and the pirate sent 140 men to destroy the mission and the town was stripped of its provisions.
 (HT, 3/97, p.61)

1818  Dec 21, Lewis H. Morgan, US ethnologist (Systems of Consanguinity), was born.
 (MC, 12/21/01)

1818  Dec 24, James Prescott Joule, physicist , was born. He discovered the principal of the conservation of energy.
 (MC, 12/24/01)
1818  Dec 24, "Silent Night" was composed by Franz Joseph Gruber.
 (HFA, ‘96, p.44)(SI-WPC, 12/6/96)(MC, 12/24/01)

1818  Dec 25, "Silent Night" by Franz Gruber was performed for the first time, at the Church of St. Nikolaus in Oberndorff, Austria.
 (HFA, ‘96, p.44)(AP, 12/25/97)

1818  Theophile Bra, French academic sculptor, won the Prix de Rome.
 (SFEM, 11/1/98, p.4)

1818  Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley wrote "Frankenstein." It was an attack on industrialization. In 1998 Joan Kane Nichols published "Mary Shelley: Frankenstein’s Creator."
 (SFEC, 2/22/98, Z1 p.8)(SFEC, 11/15/98, BR p.3)(WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R14)

1818  The Jane Austen book Northanger Abbey was published.
 
1818  John Keats published his poem "Endymion."
 (WSJ, 1/15/98, p.A17)

1818  David Young, poet, teacher and astronomer, began publishing a Farmer’s Almanac.
 (CFA, ‘96,Vol 179, p.98)

1818  The Epistles of John were published by the American Bible Society in the language of the Delaware Indians.
 (WSJ, 8/7/98, p.W13)

1818  People began wearing left and right shoes. Shoes were made identical for either foot prior to this.
 (SFEC, 2/22/98, Z1 p.8)

1818  Henry Sands Brooks began H. & D.H. Brooks & Co. in mostly rural Manhattan. It became a key military supplier during the Civil War. A 2nd store opened in 1928 and operations grew to the well known chain known as Brooks Brothers.
 (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R40)(SFC, 6/29/01, p.A8)(NW, 9/1/03, p.64)

1818  A handful of Cherokee emigrated to Oklahoma 20 years before the Trail of Tears. They are known as the Old Settlers.
 (NG, 5/95, p.91)

1818  Franciscan priests established the Santa Ysabel Mission to convert the Kumeyaay Indians in San Diego County.
 (SFC, 9/16/96, p.A15)

1818  Illinois became the 21st state of the US.
 (HFA, ‘96, p.20)

1818  The Libbey Glass Co. of Toledo, Ohio, was founded as the New England Glass Company by Edward Drummond Libbey. Libbey collected glass "through the ages" in a museum for the inspiration his workers. In 1999 it was a division of Owens-Illinois.
 (SFC, 3/31/99, Z1 p.6)(WSJ, 10/19/01, p.W15)

1818  Baron Karl de Drais de Sauerbrun invented the draisienne, the first 2-wheeled, rider-propelled machine and exhibited it in Paris.
 (Wired, 2/98, p.172)

1818  Abigail Adams, wife of former Pres. John Adams, died.
 (WSJ, 5/30/01, p.A20)

1818  Grozny was established in the northern Caucasus as a Russian fortress.
 (SFEC, 4/30/00, p.C14)

1818  In Russia the Smirnoff family went into the vodka business.
 (WSJ, 1/11/99, p.R42)

1818  In Spain the last prosecution of the Spanish Inquisition was held.
 (WSJ, 4/16/98, p.A20)

1818  In Spain an annual national Christmas lottery was begun.
 (SFC,12/23/97, p.D3)

1818-1820 John Keats (d.1821), English poet, lived in Hampstead and wrote "The Eve of St. Agnes," "Ode on a Grecian Urn," and "Ode to a Nightingale."
 (SFC, 12/24/96, p.E4)(WSJ, 1/15/98, p.A17)

1818-1883 Karl Marx, German writer and theorist for socialism. Marx called his own philosophy dialectical materialism, and claims to start philosophically from a point of view opposite to Hegel. Marx asserts that he starts from concrete reality and not from an idea, as does Hegel. Knowing history as well as he hid, he claimed to be able not only to explain why things happened as they had, but also to predict what was going to happen in the future.
 (V.D.-H.K.p.258)

1818-1885 Henry Wheeler Shaw, "Josh Billings," American author: "As scarce as truth is, the supply is always greater than the demand."
 (AP, 8/1/99)

1818-1889 James Prescott Joule, English experimental physicist, measured the mechanical, or energy, equivalent of heat itself.
 (TNG, Klein, p.55)

1819  Jan 17, Simon Bolivar the "liberator" proclaimed Colombia a republic.
 (HN, 1/17/99)

1819  Jan 26, Abner Doubleday (d.1893), Union major general and discredited "inventor" of baseball, was born.
 (MC, 1/26/02)

1819  Feb 8, John Ruskin (d.1900), writer, critic, artist, Gothic Revivalist (Pre-Raphaelite), was born. His work included "Modern Painter" and "The Stones of Venice."
 (WSJ, 3/6/00, p.A28)(MC, 2/8/02)

1819  Feb 9, Lydia E. Pinkham, patent-medicine maker and entrepreneur, was born.
 (HN, 2/9/01)

1819  Feb 14, Christopher Latham Sholes, inventor of the first practical typewriter, was born.
 (HN, 2/14/01)

1819  Feb 22, James Russell Lowell (d.1891), American essayist, poet, critic, diplomat, abolitionist, was born: "He who is firmly seated in authority soon learns to think security, and not progress, the highest lesson of statecraft."
 (AP, 6/29/99)(MC, 2/22/02)
1819  Feb 22, Spain signed the Adams-Onis Treaty with the United States ceding eastern Florida. Spanish minister Do Luis de Onis and U.S. Secretary of State John Quincy Adams signed the Florida Purchase Treaty, in which Spain agrees to cede the remainder of its old province of Florida. Spain renounced claims to Oregon Country. [see Oct 20, 1820]
 (AP, 2/22/99)(HN, 2/22/99)(MC, 2/22/02)

1819  Mar 2, Territory of Arkansas was organized. [see Jul 4]
 (SC, 3/2/02)
1819  Mar 2, US passed its 1st immigration law.
 (SC, 3/2/02)

1819  Mar 26, Louise Otto, German feminist author, was born.
 (HN, 3/25/98)

1819  Mar 29, Edwin Drake, the man who drilled the first productive oil well, was born.
 (HN, 3/29/98)
1819  Mar 29, Isaac Mayer Wise, rabbi, founder (American Hebrew Congregations), was born.
 (MC, 3/29/02)

1819  Apr 14, Charles Halle, pianist, conductor, founder (Halle Orch), was born.
 (MC, 4/14/02)

1819  Apr 18, Franz von Suppa, composer (Light Cavalry Overture), was born in Spalato, Dalmatia.
 (MC, 4/18/02)

1819  Apr 26, The first Odd Fellow lodge (Independent Order of Odd Fellows or IOOF) was established in the U.S. in Baltimore, Md. They started in Great Britain with the purpose: "to relieve the brethren, bury the dead, and care for the widow and orphan."
 (440 Int’l. Internet, 4/26/97, p.1)

1819  Mar 29, Edwin Drake, the man who drilled the first productive oil well, was born.
 (HN, 3/29/98)

1819  May 15, Thomas Leonidas Crittenden, Major General (Union volunteers), was born.
 (MC, 5/15/02)

1819  May 21, The 1st bicycles (swift walkers) in US were introduced in NYC.
 (MC, 5/21/02)

1819  May 24, Queen Victoria (d.1901) was born in London. Her reign (1836-1901) restored dignity to the British crown. She had nine children. "Great events make me quiet and calm; it is only trifles that irritate my nerves."
 (AP, 5/24/97)(HN, 5/24/99)(AP, 2/24/99)

1819  May 26, The first steam-propelled vessel to attempt a trans-Atlantic crossing, the 350-ton Savannah, departed from Savannah, Ga., May 26 and arrived in Liverpool, England, Jun 20. [HNQ set May 24 for the departure]
 (AP, 5/22/97)(HNQ, 3/18/02)

1819  May 27, Julia Ward Howe, writer of the "Battle Hymn of the Republic," was born.
 (HN, 5/27/99)

1819  May 31, Poet Walt Whitman (d.1892) was born in West Hill, N.Y. He became America’s national poet with vibrant works such as 1855’s Leaves of Grass. He poems included: "When Lilacs Last in the Doorway Bloomed." Some of Whitman’s poems were inspired by his Civil War experience as a hospital volunteer in Washington. Although a staunch supporter of the Union cause, Whitman comforted dying soldiers of both sides, as described in one of the poet's wartime newspaper dispatches: "I stayed a long time by the bedside of a new patient.... In an adjoining ward I found his brother...It was in the same battle both were hit. One was a strong Unionist, the other Secesh; both fought for their respective sides, both badly wounded, and both brought together after a separation of four years. Each died for his cause."
 (AP, 5/31/97)(HN, 5/31/98)(HNQ, 6/1/98)(V.D.-H.K.p.278)(HNPD, 5/25/99)(HN, 5/31/99)

1819  Jun 10, J.D. Gustave Courbet (d.1877), French realist painter (Demoiselles the la Seine), was born. His realistic landscapes were marked by bold shadows and compositions fragmented by the play of natural light. This technique was pursued more fully by the impressionists. His work included "Rock at HautePierre."
 (DPCP, 1984)(WSJ, 3/10/00, p.W16)(MC, 6/10/02)

1819  Jun 20, Jacques Offenbach (d.1880), French composer (Tales of Hoffmann), was born in Cologne. His work included the comedy opera "Barbe-Bleue" (Blue Beard).
 (MC, 6/20/02)(WSJ, 2/20/98, p.A16)
1819  Jun 20, The paddle-wheel steamship Savannah arrives in Liverpool, England, after a voyage of 27 days and 11 hours--the first steamship to successfully cross the Atlantic.
 (HN, 6/20/01)

1819  Jun 26, Abner Doubleday (d.1893), Civil War General, was born. He was incorrectly credited with inventing American baseball.
 (HN, 6/26/99)(WSJ, 7/19/01, p.A20)
1819  Jun 26, The bicycle was patented by W.K. Clarkson, Jr. of New York City. [see May 21]
 (MC, 6/26/02)

1819   Jul 4, The Territory of Arkansas was created.
 (IB, Internet, 12/7/98)
1819  Jul 4, William Herschel (1738-1822), German-born English astronomer, made his last telescopic observation of an 1819 comet. His son, Sir John Frederick William Herschel (1792-1871), was also an astronomer.
 (WUD, 1994, p.666)(Maggio, 98)

1819  Jul 9, Elias Howe (d.1867), inventor of the sewing machine, was born in Spencer, Mass. Howe, a machinist, developed his sewing machine in 1843-45 and patented it in 1846. Although Howe's machine sewed only short, straight lines, tailors and seamstresses saw it as a threat to their jobs. Unable to market his machine in America, Howe took it to Britain where he sold the rights to an English manufacturer in 1847. Upon his return to the United States, Howe discovered that his patent had been infringed upon by other sewing machine manufacturers, such as Isaac Singer. After a lengthy court battle, Howe's patent was upheld and royalties from sewing machine sales made him a wealthy man.
 (WUD, 1994, p.689)(HN, 7/9/99)(MC, 7/9/02)

1819  Aug 1, Herman Melville (d.1891), American novelist, author of Moby Dick, was born. In 1996 part one of a 2-part biography was published by Hershel Parker: Herman Melville: 1819-1851. In 1951 Leon Howard wrote a biography. Melville wrote 5 books between 1845-1850. They included "Typee," "Omoo," and "White-Jacket."
 (AHD, p.818)(WSJ,